Avian Malaria in Penguins: Diagnostics and Future Direction in the Context of Climate Change
- PMID: 35268169
- PMCID: PMC8909384
- DOI: 10.3390/ani12050600
Avian Malaria in Penguins: Diagnostics and Future Direction in the Context of Climate Change
Abstract
Avian malaria is caused by infection with haemoprotozoa of the genus Plasmodium. Infection is endemic in large parts of the world and is typically subclinical in birds that are native to these regions. Several penguin species have evolved in non-endemic regions without the selective pressure that these parasites exert and are highly susceptible to infection when transplanted to endemic regions, for example, in the context of zoological collections or rehabilitation centers. Avian malaria in penguins typically causes acute mortality without premonitory signs, or less commonly, nonspecific signs of morbidity, followed by mortality. Additionally, infection is reported in wild penguins, though the significance of these infections remains equivocal. As global temperatures continue to increase, avian malaria is likely to pose a continued and further threat to conservation efforts in captive environments. Intra vitam diagnosis currently relies on the evaluation of blood smears and molecular methods. The former is unreliable in penguins, as the acute clinical course typically does not allow the development of parasitemia. This absence of parasitemia also makes speciation challenging. Current molecular methods typically target the Cytochrome B or 18s subunit and have proven variably sensitive and specific. Reliable intra vitam diagnosis of avian malaria and further information about the causative agents at a species level would be very valuable in understanding the epidemiology and likely future course of avian malaria infection in penguins, and in particular, the implications avian malaria may have for conservation efforts. This paper provides an overview of malaria in penguins, discusses its changing impact on management and conservation, offers a summary of current diagnostics, and suggests future direction for the development of diagnostic tests. The latter will be key in understanding and managing this disease.
Keywords: PCR; Plasmodium; avian; climate change; diagnostics; malaria; penguin.
Conflict of interest statement
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Figures
Similar articles
-
Outbreak of avian malaria associated to multiple species of Plasmodium in magellanic penguins undergoing rehabilitation in southern Brazil.PLoS One. 2014 Apr 15;9(4):e94994. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0094994. eCollection 2014. PLoS One. 2014. PMID: 24736326 Free PMC article.
-
Plasmodium matutinum Transmitted by Culex pipiens as a Cause of Avian Malaria in Captive African Penguins (Spheniscus demersus) in Italy.Front Vet Sci. 2021 Mar 16;8:621974. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.621974. eCollection 2021. Front Vet Sci. 2021. PMID: 33796578 Free PMC article.
-
Malaria in penguins - current perceptions.Avian Pathol. 2016 Aug;45(4):393-407. doi: 10.1080/03079457.2016.1149145. Avian Pathol. 2016. PMID: 27009571 Review.
-
Treatment of avian malaria in captive African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) by the combination of atovaquone and proguanil hydrochloride.Int J Vet Sci Med. 2025 Feb 24;13(1):1-8. doi: 10.1080/23144599.2025.2460919. eCollection 2025. Int J Vet Sci Med. 2025. PMID: 40007641 Free PMC article.
-
Avian malaria in New Zealand.N Z Vet J. 2014 Jul;62(4):189-98. doi: 10.1080/00480169.2013.871195. Epub 2014 Feb 26. N Z Vet J. 2014. PMID: 24313228 Review.
Cited by
-
A Safe and Effective Atovaquone-Proguanil Therapeutic Protocol for the Treatment of Avian Malaria by Plasmodium relictum in Snowy Owl (Bubo scandiacus).Animals (Basel). 2023 Nov 9;13(22):3457. doi: 10.3390/ani13223457. Animals (Basel). 2023. PMID: 38003076 Free PMC article.
-
Surveillance of Culex spp. vectors and zoonotic arboviruses at a zoo in the United Kingdom.Heliyon. 2024 Feb 15;10(4):e26477. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26477. eCollection 2024 Feb 29. Heliyon. 2024. PMID: 38404807 Free PMC article.
-
Overview of Plasmodium spp. and Animal Models in Malaria Research.Comp Med. 2024 Aug 1;74(4):205-230. doi: 10.30802/AALAS-CM-24-000019. Epub 2024 Jun 20. Comp Med. 2024. PMID: 38902006 Free PMC article. Review.
-
First assessment of the prevalence of haemosporidian infections in Accipitriformes raptors in Greece.Parasitol Res. 2025 Jan 7;124(1):2. doi: 10.1007/s00436-024-08445-1. Parasitol Res. 2025. PMID: 39777575 Free PMC article.
-
Molecular survey of Anaplasmataceae agents, piroplasmids and haemosporidians in seabirds (Procellariiformes and Sphenisciformes) rescued on the Brazilian coast.Vet Res Commun. 2025 Jun 16;49(4):226. doi: 10.1007/s11259-025-10793-x. Vet Res Commun. 2025. PMID: 40522511
References
-
- Stidworthy M., Denk D. Sphenisciformes, Gaviiformes, Podicipediformes, Procellariformes, and Pelecaniformes. In: Terio K.A., McAloose D., St. Leger J., editors. Pathology of Wildlife and Zoo Animals. Elsevier; Oxford, UK: 2018. pp. 649–682.
-
- Atkinson C.T. Avian Malaria. In: Atkinson C.T., Thomas N.J., Hunter B., editors. Parasitic Diseases of Wild Birds. Wiley Blackwell; Ames, IA, USA: 2008. pp. 35–53.
Publication types
Grants and funding
LinkOut - more resources
Full Text Sources
Research Materials