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Review
. 2022;47(3):267-275.
doi: 10.1557/s43577-022-00286-6. Epub 2022 Mar 17.

Environmental impacts of rare earth production

Petra Zapp  1 , Andrea Schreiber  1 , Josefine Marx  1 , Wilhelm Kuckshinrichs  1
Affiliations
Review

Environmental impacts of rare earth production

Petra Zapp et al. MRS Bull. 2022.

Abstract

Rare earth elements (REEs) are important raw materials for green technologies. However, REE mining and production uses techniques that are often not environmentally sustainable. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a well-recognized method for evaluating the environmental impacts of products and technologies. This article provides an overview of the environmental impacts based on published LCA results of primary REE production. Existing major REE deposits (Bayan Obo in China, Mountain Pass in the United States, Mount Weld in Australia, ion-adsorption deposits in several Chinese southern provinces) and currently possible production routes are compared. Alternative minerals, such as eudialyte, are also discussed. The article shows which environmental effects can be minimized by technology optimization and environmental safety strategies. Additionally, some of the environmental impacts discussed, may be difficult to mitigate, as they depend on the mineral type. Activities along the complex process chain of REEs production that have particularly high environmental impacts are identified.

Keywords: Bastnäsite; Environmental impacts; Eudialyte; Ion-adsorption clays; Life cycle assessment (LCA); Monazite; Rare earth elements.

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Conflict of interest statement

Conflict of interestOn behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Simplified process chain of RE production (dashed line means optional process).
Figure 2
Figure 2
Normalized impacts of 1 kg of neodymium and dysprosium. BO Bayan Obo/Baotou, MP Mountain Pass, MW Mt Weld/Kuantan, NK Norra Kärr, CSP Chinese southern provinces, B/M bastnäsite/monazite, B bastnäsite, M monazite, Eu eudialyte, IAC ion-adsorption clay.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Relative contribution (%) of process steps (marked in the legend) to five normalized impacts (GWP, EPFreshwater, EPMarine, PM, AP) of 1 kg neodymium; the right axis additionally shows the absolute figures of the environmental impacts of each of the four process chains (based on eudialyte at Norra Kärr, monazite at Mt Weld, bastnäsite at Mountain Pass, and the mixed bastnäsite/monazite ore at Bayan Obo) in kg equivalents.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Contribution of processes of the main RE process chain as well as upstream and downstream processes to the entire process chain.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

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