Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Review
. 2022 Mar 7;12(3):413.
doi: 10.3390/biom12030413.

Hormones and Sex-Specific Medicine in Human Physiopathology

Maria Raza Tokatli  1 , Leuconoe Grazia Sisti  2   3 , Eleonora Marziali  2 , Lorenza Nachira  2 , Maria Francesca Rossi  4 , Carlotta Amantea  4 , Umberto Moscato  2   4 , Walter Malorni  1   2
Affiliations
Review

Hormones and Sex-Specific Medicine in Human Physiopathology

Maria Raza Tokatli et al. Biomolecules. .

Abstract

A prodigious increment of scientific evidence in both preclinical and clinical studies is narrowing a major gap in knowledge regarding sex-specific biological responses observed in numerous branches of clinical practices. Some paradigmatic examples include neurodegenerative and mental disorders, immune-related disorders such as pathogenic infections and autoimmune diseases, oncologic conditions, and cardiovascular morbidities. The male-to-female proportion in a population is expressed as sex ratio and varies eminently with respect to the pathophysiology, natural history, incidence, prevalence, and mortality rates. The factors that determine this scenario incorporate both sex-associated biological differences and gender-dependent sociocultural issues. A broad narrative review focused on the current knowledge about the role of hormone regulation in gender medicine and gender peculiarities across key clinical areas is provided. Sex differences in immune response, cardiovascular diseases, neurological disorders, cancer, and COVID-19 are some of the hints reported. Moreover, gender implications in occupational health and health policy are offered to support the need for more personalized clinical medicine and public health approaches to achieve an ameliorated quality of life of patients and better outcomes in population health.

Keywords: cancer; cardiovascular diseases; gender medicine; immunity; infectious diseases; neurodegenerative diseases; neurological diseases; sex hormones.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

    1. Bhargava A., Arnold A.P., Bangasser D.A., Denton K.M., Gupta A., Krause L.M.H., Mayer E.A., McCarthy M., Miller W.L., Raznahan A., et al. Considering Sex as a Biological Variable in Basic and Clinical Studies: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement. Endocr. Rev. 2021;42:219–258. doi: 10.1210/endrev/bnaa034. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Holst J.P., Soldin O.P., Guo T., Soldin S.J. Steroid hormones: Relevance and measurement in the clinical laboratory. Clin. Lab. Med. 2004;24:105–118. doi: 10.1016/j.cll.2004.01.004. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Moraga-Amaro R., Van Waarde A., Doorduin J., De Vries E.F.J. Sex steroid hormones and brain function: PET imaging as a tool for research. J. Neuroendocr. 2018;30:e12565. doi: 10.1111/jne.12565. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Sanderson J.T. The Steroid Hormone Biosynthesis Pathway as a Target for Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals. Toxicol. Sci. 2006;94:3–21. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/kfl051. - DOI - PubMed
    1. Hiort O., Holterhus P.M. The molecular basis of male sexual differentiation. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 2000;142:101–110. doi: 10.1530/eje.0.1420101. - DOI - PubMed