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Meta-Analysis
. 2022 Mar 29;3(3):CD011135.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011135.pub3.

Unconditional cash transfers for reducing poverty and vulnerabilities: effect on use of health services and health outcomes in low- and middle-income countries

Frank Pega  1 , Roman Pabayo  2 , Claire Benny  2 , Eun-Young Lee  3 , Stefan K Lhachimi  4 , Sze Yan Liu  5   6
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Unconditional cash transfers for reducing poverty and vulnerabilities: effect on use of health services and health outcomes in low- and middle-income countries

Frank Pega et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Unconditional cash transfers (UCTs; provided without obligation) for reducing poverty and vulnerabilities (e.g. orphanhood, old age, or HIV infection) are a social protection intervention addressing a key social determinant of health (income) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The relative effectiveness of UCTs compared with conditional cash transfers (CCTs; provided only if recipients follow prescribed behaviours, e.g. use a health service or attend school) is unknown.

Objectives: To assess the effects of UCTs on health services use and health outcomes in children and adults in LMICs. Secondary objectives are to assess the effects of UCTs on social determinants of health and healthcare expenditure, and to compare the effects of UCTs versus CCTs.

Search methods: For this update, we searched 15 electronic academic databases, including CENTRAL, MEDLINE and EconLit, in September 2021. We also searched four electronic grey literature databases, websites of key organisations and reference lists of previous systematic reviews, key journals and included study records.

Selection criteria: We included both parallel-group and cluster-randomised controlled trials (C-RCTs), quasi-RCTs, cohort studies, controlled before-and-after studies (CBAs), and interrupted time series studies of UCT interventions in children (0 to 17 years) and adults (≥ 18 years) in LMICs. Comparison groups received either no UCT, a smaller UCT or a CCT. Our primary outcomes were any health services use or health outcome.

Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently screened potentially relevant records for inclusion, extracted data and assessed the risk of bias. We obtained missing data from study authors if feasible. For C-RCTs, we generally calculated risk ratios for dichotomous outcomes from crude frequency measures in approximately correct analyses. Meta-analyses applied the inverse variance or Mantel-Haenszel method using a random-effects model. Where meta-analysis was impossible, we synthesised results using vote counting based on effect direction. We assessed the certainty of the evidence using GRADE.

Main results: We included 34 studies (25 studies of 20 C-RCTs, six CBAs, and three cohort studies) involving 1,140,385 participants (45,538 children, 1,094,847 adults) and 50,095 households in Africa, the Americas and South-East Asia in our meta-analyses and narrative syntheses. These analysed 29 independent data sets. The 24 UCTs identified, including one basic universal income intervention, were pilot or established government programmes or research experiments. The cash value was equivalent to 1.3% to 81.9% of the annualised gross domestic product per capita. All studies compared a UCT with no UCT; three studies also compared a UCT with a CCT. Most studies carried an overall high risk of bias (i.e. often selection or performance bias, or both). Most studies were funded by national governments or international organisations, or both. Throughout the review, we use the words 'probably' to indicate moderate-certainty evidence, 'may/maybe' for low-certainty evidence, and 'uncertain' for very low-certainty evidence. Health services use We assumed greater use of any health services to be beneficial. UCTs may not have impacted the likelihood of having used any health service in the previous 1 to 12 months, when participants were followed up between 12 and 24 months into the intervention (risk ratio (RR) 1.04, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.00 to 1.09; I2 = 2%; 5 C-RCTs, 4972 participants; low-certainty evidence). Health outcomes At one to two years, UCTs probably led to a clinically meaningful, very large reduction in the likelihood of having had any illness in the previous two weeks to three months (RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.67 to 0.92; I2 = 53%; 6 C-RCTs, 9367 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). UCTs may have increased the likelihood of having been food secure over the previous month, at 13 to 36 months into the intervention (RR 1.25, 95% CI 1.09 to 1.45; I2 = 85%; 5 C-RCTs, 2687 participants; low-certainty evidence). UCTs may have increased participants' level of dietary diversity over the previous week, when assessed with the Household Dietary Diversity Score and followed up 24 months into the intervention (mean difference (MD) 0.59 food categories, 95% CI 0.18 to 1.01; I2 = 79%; 4 C-RCTs, 9347 participants; low-certainty evidence). Despite several studies providing relevant evidence, the effects of UCTs on the likelihood of being moderately stunted and on the level of depression remain uncertain. We found no study on the effect of UCTs on mortality risk. Social determinants of health UCTs probably led to a clinically meaningful, moderate increase in the likelihood of currently attending school, when assessed at 12 to 24 months into the intervention (RR 1.06, 95% CI 1.04 to 1.09; I2 = 0%; 8 C-RCTs, 7136 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). UCTs may have reduced the likelihood of households being extremely poor, at 12 to 36 months into the intervention (RR 0.92, 95% CI 0.87 to 0.97; I2 = 63%; 6 C-RCTs, 3805 participants; low-certainty evidence). The evidence was uncertain for whether UCTs impacted livestock ownership, participation in labour, and parenting quality. Healthcare expenditure Evidence from eight cluster-RCTs on healthcare expenditure was too inconsistent to be combined in a meta-analysis, but it suggested that UCTs may have increased the amount of money spent on health care at 7 to 36 months into the intervention (low-certainty evidence). Equity, harms and comparison with CCTs The effects of UCTs on health equity (or unfair and remedial health inequalities) were very uncertain. We did not identify any harms from UCTs. Three cluster-RCTs compared UCTs versus CCTs with regard to the likelihood of having used any health services or had any illness, or the level of dietary diversity, but evidence was limited to one study per outcome and was very uncertain for all three.

Authors' conclusions: This body of evidence suggests that unconditional cash transfers (UCTs) may not impact a summary measure of health service use in children and adults in LMICs. However, UCTs probably or may improve some health outcomes (i.e. the likelihood of having had any illness, the likelihood of having been food secure, and the level of dietary diversity), two social determinants of health (i.e. the likelihoods of attending school and being extremely poor), and healthcare expenditure. The evidence on the relative effectiveness of UCTs and CCTs remains very uncertain.

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Conflict of interest statement

Pega: none known. Frank Pega is a technical officer for the World Health Organization but was an honorary research fellow for the University of Otago at the time of writing.

Pabayo: none known.

Benny: none known.

Lee: none known.

Lhachimi: none known.

Liu: none known.

Figures

1
1
Conceptual framework of the causal relationship between an unconditional cash transfer for reducing poverty and vulnerabilities and the use of health services and health outcomes
2
2
Flowchart of study selection
3
3
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study
4
4
Has ever had birth registered
5
5
Forest plot of comparison: 1 Unconditional cash transfer compared with no unconditional cash transfer for improving health service use, outcome: 1.5 Use of any health service in previous 1 to 12 months
6
6
Forest plot of comparison: 2 Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer for improving health outcomes, outcome: 2.4 Has had any illness in previous 2 weeks to 3 months.
7
7
Has been food secure in previous month
8
8
Forest plot of comparison: 2 Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer for improving health outcomes, outcome: 2.6 Dietary diversity (Household Dietary Diversity Score) in previous week.
9
9
Owns livestock in previous year
10
10
Forest plot of comparison: 3 Unconditional cash transfers versus no unconditional cash transfers for improving social determinants of health, outcome: 3.2 Attends school.
11
11
Forest plot of comparison: 3 Unconditional cash transfers versus no unconditional cash transfers: social determinants of health, outcome: 3.5 Is extremely poor.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health services use, Outcome 1: Has ever had birth registered
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health services use, Outcome 2: Has had a growth check in previous 6 months
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health services use, Outcome 3: Is up to date on vaccination calendar
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health services use, Outcome 4: Has been given any treatment for parasites in previous year
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health services use, Outcome 5: Has used any health service in previous 1 to 12 months
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health outcomes, Outcome 1: Is moderately stunted
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health outcomes, Outcome 2: Is moderately underweight
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health outcomes, Outcome 3: Has had any illness in previous 2 weeks to 3 months
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health outcomes, Outcome 4: Has been food secure in previous month
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health outcomes, Outcome 5: Level of dietary diversity (Household Dietary Diversity Score) in previous week
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health outcomes, Outcome 6: Level of depression (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Score)
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3: Unconditional cash transfers versus no unconditional cash transfers: social determinants of health, Outcome 1: Owns livestock in previous year
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3: Unconditional cash transfers versus no unconditional cash transfers: social determinants of health, Outcome 2: Attends school
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3: Unconditional cash transfers versus no unconditional cash transfers: social determinants of health, Outcome 3: Works
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3: Unconditional cash transfers versus no unconditional cash transfers: social determinants of health, Outcome 4: Level of parenting quality (Home Observation Measurement of the Environment Score) (standard deviations)
3.5
3.5. Analysis
Comparison 3: Unconditional cash transfers versus no unconditional cash transfers: social determinants of health, Outcome 5: Is extremely poor
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health equity, Outcome 1: Height for age (standard deviations) by rural‐urban residency, currently
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health equity, Outcome 2: Height for age (standard deviations) by income poverty status, currently
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health equity, Outcome 3: Has had any illness in previous 2 weeks to 1 month by age
4.4
4.4. Analysis
Comparison 4: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health equity, Outcome 4: Has had any illness in previous 2 weeks to 3 months by gender
4.5
4.5. Analysis
Comparison 4: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health equity, Outcome 5: Food security index by gender
4.6
4.6. Analysis
Comparison 4: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health equity, Outcome 6: Dietary diversity (Household Dietary Diversity Score) in previous week by rural‐urban residency
4.7
4.7. Analysis
Comparison 4: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health equity, Outcome 7: Level of dietary diversity (Household Dietary Diversity Score) in previous week by gender
4.8
4.8. Analysis
Comparison 4: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health equity, Outcome 8: Level of dietary diversity (Household Dietary Diversity Score) in previous week by income poverty status
4.9
4.9. Analysis
Comparison 4: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health equity, Outcome 9: Level of depression (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Score) by rural‐urban residency
4.10
4.10. Analysis
Comparison 4: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health equity, Outcome 10: Level of depression (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Score) by gender
4.11
4.11. Analysis
Comparison 4: Unconditional cash transfer versus no unconditional cash transfer: health equity, Outcome 11: Level of depression (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Score) by income poverty status
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5: Additional analyses, Outcome 1: Is moderately stunted
5.2
5.2. Analysis
Comparison 5: Additional analyses, Outcome 2: Is moderately underweight
5.3
5.3. Analysis
Comparison 5: Additional analyses, Outcome 3: Has had any illness in previous 2 weeks to 3 months
5.4
5.4. Analysis
Comparison 5: Additional analyses, Outcome 4: Has been food secure in previous month (measure: ate meat/fish 5+ over last month)
5.5
5.5. Analysis
Comparison 5: Additional analyses, Outcome 5: Level of dietary diversity (Household Dietary Diversity Score) in previous week
5.6
5.6. Analysis
Comparison 5: Additional analyses, Outcome 6: Owns livestock in previous year (measure: owns cattle)
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

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Bazzi 2012 {published and unpublished data}
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Beck 2015 {published data only}
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Cunha 2014 {published and unpublished data}
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d'Errico 2020 {published data only}
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Fernald 2011 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Fernald LC, Hidrobo M.Effect of Ecuador's cash transfer program (Bono de Desarrollo Humano) on child development in infants and toddlers: a randomized effectiveness trial. Social Science & Medicine 2011;72(9):1437-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.03.005] - DOI - PubMed
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Galiani 2014 {published and unpublished data}
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Grellety 2017 {published data only}
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Haushofer 2013 {published data only}
    1. Haushofer J, Ringdal C, Shapiro JP, Wang XY.Income changes and intimate partner violence: evidence from unconditional cash transfers in Kenya. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research; 2019. NBER Working Paper 25627.
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Hessel 2018 {published and unpublished data}
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Huang 2016 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Huang C, Singh K, Handa S, Halpern C, Pettifor A, Thirumurthy H.Investments in children’s health and the Kenyan cash transfer for orphans and vulnerable children: evidence from an unconditional cash transfer scheme. Health Policy and Planning 2017;32:943–55. - PMC - PubMed
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Leroy 2010 {published data only}
    1. Leroy JL, Gadsden P, Cossio TG, Gertler P.Cash and in-kind transfers lead to excess weight gain in a population of women with a high prevalence of overweight in rural Mexico. Journal of Nutrition 2013;143(3):378-83. [DOI: 10.3945/jn.112.167627] - DOI - PubMed
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Luseno 2012 {published and unpublished data}
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Miller 2008 {published and unpublished data}
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Ohrnberger 2019 {published data only}
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Olajide 2013 {published data only}
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Paxson 2007 {published data only}
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Pellerano 2014 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Pace N, Daidone S, Davis B, Pellerano L.Does “soft conditionality” increase the impact of cash transfers on desired outcomes? Evidence from a randomized control trial in Lesotho. Working Paper. Venice, Italy: Department of Economics, Ca’Foscari University of Venice, 2016.
    1. Pace N, Daidone S, Davis B, Pellerano L.Shaping cash transfer impacts through ‘soft-conditions’: evidence from Lesotho. Journal of African Economies 2019;28:139–69.
    1. Pellerano L, Hurrell A, Kardan A, Barca V, Hove F, Beazley R, et al.CGP Impact Evaluation: Targeting and Baseline Evaluation Report. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford Policy Mangement, 2012.
    1. Pellerano L, Moratti M, Jakobsen M, Bajgar M, Barca V.The Lesotho Child Grants Programme impact evaluation: Follow-up Report. Maseru, Lesotho: UNICEF-Lesotho (with EU funding and technical support from FAO). Prepared by Oxford Policy Management, 2014.
    1. Pellerano L (Oxford Policy Management, Oxford, UK).[personal communication]. Conversation with: F Pega (University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand) 14 March 2015.
Robertson 2012 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Crea TM, Reynolds AD, Sinha A, Eaton JW, Robertson LA, Mushati P, et al.Effects of cash transfers on children's health and social protection in Sub-Saharan Africa: differences in outcomes based on orphan status and household assets. BMC Public Health 2015;15:511. [DOI: 10.1186/s12889-015-1857-4] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Gregson S (Imperial College London, London, UK).[personal communication]. Conversation with: F Pega (University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand) 11 March 2015.
    1. Robertson L, Mushati P, Eaton JW, Dumba L, Mavise G, Makoni J, et al.Effects of unconditional and conditional cash transfers on child health and development in Zimbabwe: a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet 2013;381(9874):1283-92. [DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62168-0] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Robertson L, Mushati P, Eaton JW, Dumba L, Mavise G, Makoni JC, et al.Conditional cash transfers improve birth registration and school attendance amongst orphans and vulnerable children in Manicaland, Zimbabwe. Journal of the International AIDS Society 2012;15(Suppl 3):158-9.
Salinas‐Rodríguez 2014 {published data only}
    1. Salinas-Rodríguez A, Torres-Pereda Mdel P, Manrique-Espinoza B, Moreno-Tamayo K, Téllez-Rojo Solís MM.Impact of the non-contributory social pension program 70 y más on older adults' mental well-being. PloS One 2014;9(11):e113085. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113085] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Schady 2012 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Schady N.Cash transfers and anemia among women of reproductive age. Economics Letters 2012;117(3):887-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.econlet.2012.07.014] - DOI
    1. Schady N.Cash transfers and anemia among women of reproductive age. Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank, 2012. IDB Working Paper Series No. IDB-WP-336.
    1. Schady N (Inter-American Development Bank, Washington, US).[personal communication]. Conversation with: F Pega (University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand) 25 March 2015.
Seidenfeld 2012 {published data only}
    1. American Institutes for Research.Zambia’s Multiple Category Targeting Grant: 24-Month Impact Report. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research, 2014.
    1. American Institutes for Research.Zambia’s Multiple Category Targeting Grant: 36-Month Impact Report. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research, 2015.
    1. Ministry of Community Development and Social Welfare, Zambia.The Multiple Categorical Trageting Grant: A Comprehensive Summary of Impacts (2011-2014). Washintgon, DC: American Institutes for Resarch, 2016.
    1. Seidenfeld D, Prencipe L, Handa S, Tembo G, Sherman D.Zambia’s Multiple Category Cash Transfer Program: Baseline Report. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research, 2012.
Seidenfeld 2013 {published and unpublished data}
    1. American Institutes for Research.Zambia’s Child Grant Program: 24-month Impact Report. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research, 2013.
    1. American Institutes for Research.Zambia’s Child Grant Program: 30-month Impact Report. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research, 2014.
    1. American Institutes for Research.Zambia’s Child Grant Program: 36-month Impact Report. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research, 2014.
    1. American Institutes for Research.Zambia’s Child Grant Program: 48-month Impact Report. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research, 2016.
    1. Chakrabarti A, Handa S, Natali L, Seidenfeld D, Tembo G, on behalf of the Zambia Cash Transfer Evaluation Team.More evidence on the relationship between cash transfers and child height. Journal of Development Effectiveness 2020;12(1):14-37. [DOI: 10.1080/19439342.2020.1731568] - DOI
Smith 2017 {published data only}
    1. Smith LM, Hein NA, Bagenda DS.Cash Transfers and HIV/HSV-2 Prevalence: A Replication of a Cluster Randomized Trial in Malawi. 3ie Replication Paper 12. Washington, DC: International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie), 2017.
    1. Smith LM, Hein NA, BagendaI DS.Cash transfers and HIV/HSV-2 prevalence: a replication of a cluster randomized trial in Malawi. PloS One 2019;14(1):e0210405. - PMC - PubMed
Tiwari 2019 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Tiwari S.Long-term effects of temporary income shocks on food consumption and subjective well-being. Journal of Development Studies 2019;55(8):1687-707.
    1. Tiwari S (Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, US).[personal communication]. Conversation with: F Pega (University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand) 18 February, 2021.
Wang 2019 {published data only}
    1. Wang H, Luo J.The short-term impact of unconditional cash transfers: a replication study of a randomized controlled trial in Kenya. Journal of Development Effectiveness 2019;11(4):391-408.
    1. Wang H, Qui F, Luo J.Impact of unconditional cash transfers: a replication study of the short-term effects in Kenya. Washington, DC: International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie), 2018. 3ie Replication Paper 20.
Ward 2010 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Bahety G (Oxford Policy Management, Oxford, UK).[personal communication]. Conversation with: F Pega (University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand) 11 March 2015.
    1. Hurrell A, Ward P, Merttens F.Kenya OVC-CT Programme Operational and Impact Evaluation: Baseline Survey Report. Oxford (UK): Oxford Policy Management, 2008.
    1. Tiwari S, Daidone S, Ruvalcaba MA, Prifti E, Handa S, Davis B, et al.Impact of cash transfer programs on food security and nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa: a cross-country analysis. Global Food Security 2016;11:72-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gfs.2016.07.009] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Ward P, Hurrell A, Visram A, Riemenschneider N, Pellerano L, O’Brien C, et al.Cash Transfer Programme For Orphans And Vulnerable Children, Kenya: Operational and Impact Evaluation, 2007-2009: Final Report. Oxford (UK): Oxford Policy Management, 2010.

References to studies excluded from this review

Aguila 2017 {published data only}
    1. Aguila E, Kapteyn A, Perez-Arce F.Consumption smoothing and frequency of benefit payments of cash transfer programs. American Economic Review 2017;107(5):430-35. [DOI: 10.1257/aer.p20171147] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Akee 2013 {published data only}
    1. Akee R, Simeonova E, Copeland W, Angold A, Costello EJ.Young adult obesity and household income: effects of unconditional cash transfers. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 2013;5(2):1-28. [DOI: 10.1257/app.5.2.1] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Aker 2013 {published data only}
    1. Aker J.Cash or coupons? Testing the impacts of cash versus vouchers in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Washington, DC: Center for Global Development, 2013. CGD Working Paper 320.
    1. Aker JC.Comparing cash and voucher transfers in a humanitarian context: evidence from the Democratic Republic of Congo. World Bank Economic Review 2017;31(1):44-70. [DOI: 10.1093/wber/lhv055] - DOI
Attanasio 2015 {published data only}
    1. Attanasio OP, Oppedisano V, Vera-Hernández M.Should cash transfers be conditional? Conditionality, preventive care, and health outcomes. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 2015;7(3):25-43. [DOI: 10.1257/app.20130126] - DOI
Ayuku 2013 {published data only}
    1. Ayuku D, Atwoli L, Ayaya S, Koech J, Nyandat J, Gisore P, et al.Do government cash transfers work to support households in caring for orphaned youth? Evidence from Western Kenya. Turkish Archives of Pediatrics 2013;48(Suppl 2):114.
Benedetti 2016 {published data only}
    1. Benedetti F, Ibarrarán P, McEwan PJ.Do education and health conditions matter in a large cash transfer? Evidence from a Honduran experiment. Economic Development and Cultural Change 2016;64(4):759-93. [DOI: 10.1086/686583] - DOI
Benhassine 2013 {published data only}
    1. Benhassine N, Devoto F, Duflo E, Dupas P, Pouliquen V.Turning a shove into a nudge? A "labelled cash transfer" for education. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 2015;7(3):86-125. [DOI: 10.1257/pol.20130225] - DOI
    1. Benhassine N, Devoto F, Duflo E, Dupas P, Pouliquen V.Turning a shove into a nudge? A "labelled cash transfer" for education. Cambridge (MA): National Bureau of Economic Research; 2013. NBER Working Paper No. 19227.
Buller 2016 {published data only}
    1. Buller AM, Hidrobo M, Peterman A, Heise L.The way to a man’s heart is through his stomach? A mixed methods study on causal mechanisms through which cash and in-kind food transfers decreased intimate partner violence. BMC Public Health 2016;16:488. [DOI: 10.1186/s12889-016-3129-3] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Buser 2014 {published data only}
    1. Buser T, Oosterbeek H, Plug E, Ponce J, Rosero J.The impact of positive and negative income changes on the height and weight of young children. Bonn (Germany): IZA; 2014. IZA Discussion Paper No. 8130.
Cluver 2013 {published data only}
    1. Cluver L, Boyes M, Orkin M, Pantelic M, Molwena T, Sherr L.Child-focused state cash transfers and adolescent risk of HIV infection in South Africa: a propensity-score-matched case-control study. Lancet Global Health 2013;1(6):e362-70. [DOI: 10.1016/S2214-109X(13)70115-3] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Cluver LD, Orkin FM, Boyes ME, Sherr L.Cash plus care: social protection cumulatively mitigates HIV-risk behaviour among adolescents in South Africa. AIDS 2014;28(Suppl 3):S389-97. [DOI: 10.1097/QAD.0000000000000340] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Cluver LD, Orkin FM, Meinck F, Boyes ME, Sherr L.Structural drivers and social protection: mechanisms of HIV risk and HIV prevention for South African adolescents. Journal of the International AIDS Society 2016;19(2):20646. [DOI: 10.7448/IAS.19.1.20646] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Cluver LD, Orkin FM, Meinck F, Boyes ME, Yakubovich AR, Sherr L.Can social protection improve Sustainable Development Goals for adolescent health? PloS One 2016;11(10):e0164808. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164808] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Cluver LD, Orkin FM, Yakubovich AR, Sherr L.Combination social protection for reducing HIV-risk behavior among adolescents in South Africa. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2016;72(1):96-104. [DOI: 10.1097/QAI.0000000000000938] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Doocey 2017 {published data only}
    1. Doocy S, Tappis H, Lyles E, Witiw J, Aken V.Emergency food assistance in Northern Syria: an evaluation of transfer programs in Idleb Governorate. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 2017;38(2):240-59. [DOI: 10.1177/0379572117700755] - DOI - PubMed
Fenn 2017 {published data only}
    1. Fenn B, Colbourn T, Dolan C, Pietzsch S, Sangrasi M, Shoham J.Impact evaluation of different cash-based intervention modalities on child and maternal nutritional status in Sindh Province, Pakistan, at 6 mo and at 1 y: a cluster randomised controlled trial. PLoS Medicine 2017;14(5):e1002305. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002305] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Galárraga 2014 {published data only}
    1. Galárraga O, Sosa-Rubí SG, Conde-Glez CJ, Juárez-Figueroa L, González A, Badial-Hernández F, et al.Conditional economic incentives to reduce HIV risks among high risk men who have sex with men: a randomized pilot in Mexico. In: Conference proceedings of the 10th World Congress in Health Economics; 2014 Jul 13-16; Dublin (Ireland). Dublin (Ireland): International Health Economics Association, 2014.
    1. Galárraga O, Sosa-Rubí SG, González A, Badial-Hernández F, Conde-Glez CJ, Juárez-Figueroa L, et al.The disproportionate burden of HIV and STIs among male sex workers in Mexico City and the rationale for economic incentives to reduce risks. Journal of the International AIDS Society 2014;17:19218. [DOI: 10.7448/IAS.17.1.19218] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Gangophadyay 2015 {published data only}
    1. Gangopadhyay S, Lensink R, Yadav B.Cash or in-kind transfers? Evidence from a randomised controlled trial in Delhi, India. Journal of Development Studies 2015;51(6):660-73. [DOI: 10.1080/00220388.2014.997219] - DOI
Han 2020 {published data only}
    1. Han H, Gao Q.Does welfare participation improve life satisfaction? Evidence from panel data in rural China. Journal of Happiness Studies 2020;21(5):1795-822. [DOI: 10.1007/s10902-019-00157-z] - DOI
Haushofer 2020 {published data only}
    1. Haushofer J, Chemin M, Jang C, Abraham J.Economic and psychological effects of health insurance and cash transfers: evidence from a randomized experiment in Kenya. Journal of Development Economics 2020;144:102416. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2019.102416] - DOI
Heath 2020 {published data only}
    1. Heath R, Hidrobo M, Roy S.Cash transfers, polygamy, and intimate partner violence: experimental evidence from Mali. Journal of Development Economics 2020;143:102410. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2019.102410] - DOI
Hidrobo 2013 {published data only}
    1. Hidrobo M, Fernald L.Cash transfers and domestic violence. Journal of Health Economics 2013;32(1):304-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2012.11.002] - DOI - PubMed
Hoddinott 2018 {published data only}
    1. Hoddinott J, Ahmed A, Roy S.Randomized control trials demonstrate that nutrition-sensitive social protection interventions increase the use of multiple-micronutrient powders and iron supplements in rural pre-school Bangladeshi children. Public Health Nutrition 2018;21(9):1753-61. [DOI: 10.1017/S1368980017004232] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Kenya CT‐OVC Evaluation Team 2012 {published data only}
    1. KCT-OVCET.The impact of the Kenya Cash Transfer Program for Orphans and Vulnerable Children on household spending. Journal of Development Effectiveness 2012;4(1):9-37. [DOI: 10.1080/19439342.2011.653980] - DOI
Kilburn 2016 {published data only}
    1. Kilburn K, Thirumurthy H, Halpern CT, Pettifor A, Handa S.Effects of a large-scale unconditional cash transfer program on mental health outcomes of young people in Kenya. Journal of Adolescent Health 2016;58(2):223-9. - PMC - PubMed
McIntosh 2020 {published data only}
    1. McIntosh C, Zeitlin A.Using household grants to benchmark the cost effectiveness of a USAID workforce readiness program. arXiv 2020 Sept 2 [Epub ahead of print]:2009.01749v1.
Ndlovu 2013 {published data only}
    1. Ndlovu PV.Effects of Social Grants on Labor Supply and Food Security of South African Households: Is There a Disincentive Effect? [Masters thesis]. Alberta (Canada): University of Alberta, 2013.
Pereznieto 2014 {published data only}
    1. Pereznieto P, Jones N, Hamad BA, Shaheen M, O'Neill K.Tackling Childhood Poverty and Vulnerability: Making the Palestinian National Cash Transfer Programme More Effective for Children. London, United Kingdom: Overseas Development Institute & UNICEF, 2014.
Pratinidhi 2014 {published data only}
    1. Pratinidhi AK.Effects of age, years of schooling, income, and cash incentive on postponement of first pregnancy among newly married couples in Satara district of Maharashtra (India). International Journal of Medicine and Public Health 2014;4(1):66-71. [DOI: 10.4103/2230-8598.127130] - DOI
Rocha 2013 {published data only}
    1. Rocha S.The Brazilian Bolsa-Familia, 2003-2010: the workings of the new cash transfer program. Economie Appliquee 2013;66(1):125-54.
Sabates‐Wheeler 2018 {published data only}
    1. Sabates‐Wheeler R, Sabates R, Devereux S.Enabling graduation for whom? Identifying and explaining heterogeneity in livelihood trajectories post‐cash transfer exposure. Journal of Development Studies 2018;30(7):1071-1095.
Seidenfeld 2011 {published data only}
    1. Seidenfeld D, Handa S, Huang C, Tembo G, Sherman D.Results of the Three Year Impact Evaluation of Zambia’s Cash Transfer Program in Monze District: Final Report. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research, 2011.
Skoufias 2013 {published data only}
    1. Skoufias E, Unar M, Cossio TG.The poverty impacts of cash and in-kind transfers: experimental evidence from rural Mexico. Journal of Development Effectiveness 2013;5(4):401-29. [DOI: 10.1080/19439342.2013.843578] - DOI
Tonguet‐Papucci 2017 {published data only}
    1. Houngbe F, Tonguet-Papucci A, Altare C, Ait-Aissa M, Huneau JF, Huybregts L, et al.Unconditional cash transfers do not prevent children's undernutrition in the Moderate Acute Malnutrition Out (MAM'Out) Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial in rural Burkina Faso. Journal of Nutrition 2017;147(7):1410-7. [DOI: 10.3945/jn.117.247858] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Tonguet-Papucci A, Houngbe F, Huybregts L, Ait-Aissa M, Altare C, Kolsteren P, et al.Unconditional seasonal cash transfer increases intake of high-nutritional-value foods in young Burkinabe children: results of 24-hour dietary recall surveys within the MAM'Out Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Nutrition 2017;147(7):1418-25. [DOI: 10.3945/jn.116.244517] - DOI - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

Aguila 2020 {published data only}
    1. Aguila E, Casanova M.Short-term impact of income on cognitive function: evidence from a sample of Mexican older adults. Journal of Aging and Health 2020;32(7/8):591-603. [DOI: 10.1177/0898264319841155] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Banarjee 2020 {published data only}
    1. Banerjee A, Faye M, Krueger A, Niehaus P, Suri T.Effects of a universal basic income during the pandemic. Working paper, Cambridge, MA; September 2020. Available at mitsloan.mit.edu/shared/ods/documents?PublicationDocumentID=7568.
Chen 2019 {published data only}
    1. Chen X, Wang T, Buscha SH.Does money relieve depression? Evidence from social pension expansions in China. Social Science & Medicine 2019;220:411–420. [DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.12.004] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Davis 2016 {published data only}
    1. Davis B, Handa S, Hypher N, Winder N, Winters PC, Yablonski J.From Evidence to Action: The Story of Cash Transfers and Impact Evaluation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press, 2016.
De Groot 2021 {published data only}
    1. De Groot R, Palermo T, Banks LM, Kuper H.The impact of the Lesotho Child Grant Programme in the lives of children and adults with disabilities: disaggregated analysis of a community randomized controlled trial. International Social Security Review 2021;74(2):55-81. [DOI: 10.1111/issr.12265] - DOI
Haushofer 2018 {published data only}
    1. Haushofer J, Shapiro J.The long-term impact of unconditional cash transfers: experimental evidence from Kenya. Nairobi, Kenya: Busara Center for Behavioral Economics, 2018. - PMC - PubMed
Haushofer 2021 {published data only}
    1. Haushofer J, Mudida R, Shapiro J.The Comparative Impact of Cash Transfers and a Psychotherapy Program on Psychological and Economic Well-being. IFN Working Paper No. 1377. Stockholm, Sweden: Research Institute of Industrial Economics, 2021.
Ma 2020 {published data only}
    1. Ma X, Oshio T.The impact of social insurance on health among middle-aged and older adults in rural China: a longitudinal study using a three-wave nationwide survey. BMC Public Health 2020;20:1842. [DOI: 10.1186/s12889-020-09945-2] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Ohrnberger 2020 {published data only}
    1. Ohrnberger J, Anselmi L, Fichera E, Sutton M.The effect of cash transfers on mental health: opening the black box. A study from South Africa. Social Science & Medicine 2020;260:113181. [DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113181] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Oxford Policy Management, Makarere University 2013 {published data only}
    1. Binci M, Merttens F, O’Leary S, Sindou E.Evaluation of the Uganda Social Assistance Grants for Empowerment (SAGE) Programme: Technical Report on Regression Discontinuity Design. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford Policy Management, 2014.
    1. Brook S, Jones E, Merttens F.Evaluation of the Uganda Social Assistance Grants for Empowerment (SAGE) Programme: Midline Qualitative Research Evaluation Report February 2012 – October 2013. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford Policy Management, 2014.
    1. Merttens F, Jones E.Evaluation of the Uganda Social Assistance Grants for Empowerment (SAGE) Programme: Programme Operations Performance Report. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford Policy Management, 2014.
    1. Merttens F, Pellerano L, O’Leary S, Sindou E, Attah R, Jones E, et al.Evaluation of the Uganda Social Assistance Grants for Empowerment (SAGE) Programme: Impact After One Year of Programme Operations 2012-2013. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford Policy Management, 2015.
    1. Merttens F, Sindou E, Attah R, Hearle C.Evaluation of the Uganda Social Assistance Grants for Empowerment (SAGE) Programme: Endline Programme Operations Performance – Final Report. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford Policy Management, 2016.
Shangani 2017 {published data only}
    1. Shangani S, Operario D, Genberg B, Kirwa K, Midoun M, Atwoli L, et al.Unconditional government cash transfers in support of orphaned and vulnerable adolescents in western Kenya: is there an association with psychological wellbeing? PLoS One 2017;12(5):e0178076. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0178076] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Zheng 2020 {published data only}
    1. Zheng XD, Fang XM, Brown DS.Social pensions and child health in rural China. Journal of Development Studies 2020;56(3):545-59. [DOI: 10.1080/00220388.2019.1577387] - DOI

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