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. 2022 Apr 4;4(4):MR000050.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.MR000050.pub2.

Control interventions in randomised trials among people with mental health disorders

Erlend Faltinsen  1   2   3 , Adnan Todorovac  1 , Laura Staxen Bruun  1 , Asbjørn Hróbjartsson  3   2 , Christian Gluud  4   5 , Mickey T Kongerslev  1   6 , Erik Simonsen  1   7 , Ole Jakob Storebø  1   8
Affiliations

Control interventions in randomised trials among people with mental health disorders

Erlend Faltinsen et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Control interventions in randomised trials provide a frame of reference for the experimental interventions and enable estimations of causality. In the case of randomised trials assessing patients with mental health disorders, many different control interventions are used, and the choice of control intervention may have considerable impact on the estimated effects of the treatments being evaluated.

Objectives: To assess the benefits and harms of typical control interventions in randomised trials with patients with mental health disorders. The difference in effects between control interventions translates directly to the impact a control group has on the estimated effect of an experimental intervention. We aimed primarily to assess the difference in effects between (i) wait-list versus no-treatment, (ii) usual care versus wait-list or no-treatment, and (iii) placebo interventions (all placebo interventions combined or psychological, pharmacological, and physical placebos individually) versus wait-list or no-treatment. Wait-list patients are offered the experimental intervention by the researchers after the trial has been finalised if it offers more benefits than harms, while no-treatment participants are not offered the experimental intervention by the researchers.

Search methods: In March 2018, we searched MEDLINE, PsycInfo, Embase, CENTRAL, and seven other databases and six trials registers.

Selection criteria: We included randomised trials assessing patients with a mental health disorder that compared wait-list, usual care, or placebo interventions with wait-list or no-treatment .

Data collection and analysis: Titles, abstracts, and full texts were reviewed for eligibility. Review authors independently extracted data and assessed risk of bias using Cochrane's risk of bias tool. GRADE was used to assess the quality of the evidence. We contacted researchers working in the field to ask for data from additional published and unpublished trials. A pre-planned decision hierarchy was used to select one benefit and one harm outcome from each trial. For the assessment of benefits, we summarised continuous data as standardised mean differences (SMDs) and dichotomous data as risk ratios (RRs). We used risk differences (RDs) for the assessment of adverse events. We used random-effects models for all statistical analyses. We used subgroup analysis to explore potential causes for heterogeneity (e.g. type of placebo) and sensitivity analyses to explore the robustness of the primary analyses (e.g. fixed-effect model).

Main results: We included 96 randomised trials (4200 participants), ranging from 8 to 393 participants in each trial. 83 trials (3614 participants) provided usable data. The trials included 15 different mental health disorders, the most common being anxiety (25 trials), depression (16 trials), and sleep-wake disorders (11 trials). All 96 trials were assessed as high risk of bias partly because of the inability to blind participants and personnel in trials with two control interventions. The quality of evidence was rated low to very low, mostly due to risk of bias, imprecision in estimates, and heterogeneity. Only one trial compared wait-list versus no-treatment directly but the authors were not able to provide us with any usable data on the comparison. Five trials compared usual care versus wait-list or no-treatment and found a SMD -0.33 (95% CI -0.83 to 0.16, I² = 86%, 523 participants) on benefits. The difference between all placebo interventions combined versus wait-list or no-treatment was SMD -0.37 (95% CI -0.49 to -0.25, I² = 41%, 65 trials, 2446 participants) on benefits. There was evidence of some asymmetry in the funnel plot (Egger's test P value of 0.087). Almost all the trials were small. Subgroup analysis found a moderate effect in favour of psychological placebos SMD -0.49 (95% CI -0.64 to -0.30; I² = 53%, 39 trials, 1656 participants). The effect of pharmacological placebos versus wait-list or no-treatment on benefits was SMD -0.14 (95% CI -0.39 to 0.11, 9 trials, 279 participants) and the effect of physical placebos was SMD -0.21 (95% CI -0.35 to -0.08, I² = 0%, 17 trials, 896 participants). We found large variations in effect sizes in the psychological and pharmacological placebo comparisons. For specific mental health disorders, we found significant differences in favour of all placebos for sleep-wake disorders, major depressive disorder, and anxiety disorders, but the analyses were imprecise due to sparse data. We found no significant differences in harms for any of the comparisons but the analyses suffered from sparse data. When using a fixed-effect model in a sensitivity analysis on the comparison for usual care versus wait-list and no-treatment, the results were significant with an SMD of -0.46 (95 % CI -0.64 to -0.28). We reported an alternative risk of bias model where we excluded the blinding domains seeing how issues with blinding may be seen as part of the review investigation itself. However, this did not markedly change the overall risk of bias profile as most of the trials still included one or more unclear bias domains.

Authors' conclusions: We found marked variations in effects between placebo versus no-treatment and wait-list and between subtypes of placebo with the same comparisons. Almost all the trials were small with considerable methodological and clinical variability in factors such as mental health population, contents of the included control interventions, and outcome domains. All trials were assessed as high risk of bias and the evidence quality was low to very low. When researchers decide to use placebos or usual care control interventions in trials with people with mental health disorders it will often lead to lower estimated effects of the experimental intervention than when using wait-list or no-treatment controls. The choice of a control intervention therefore has considerable impact on how effective a mental health treatment appears to be. Methodological guideline development is needed to reach a consensus on future standards for the design and reporting of control interventions in mental health intervention research.

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Conflict of interest statement

The review authors have no relevant interests to declare.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram. * Powers 2008 was included in both psychological and pharmacological placebo " Brill 1964 was included in both pharmacological placebo and usual care < Klerman 1974 was divided into two different trials ‐: Peck 1974 was included only in all placebos analyses due to that the placebo group was a mix of psychological and pharmacological placebo
2
2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
4
4
When we compared usual care with wait‐list and no‐treatment, we performed trial sequential analysis (TSA) on the primary outcome. The analysis shows that the required information size was not reached. See Figure 4 above. MIREDIF: Minimum relevant difference
5
5
Alternative Risk of bias graph
6
6
Alternative Risk of bias summary
7
7
When comparing all placebos with wait‐list and no‐treatment on beneficial effects, we performed a trial sequential analysis on the primary outcome. The analysis shows that the required information size was reached. See Figure 5 above. MIREDIF: Minimum relevant difference
8
8
Funnel plot of comparison: 6.1. Efficacy of all placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for continuous data.
9
9
Funnel plot of comparison: 7.1 Serious adverse events of all placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for dichotomous data.
10
10
We performed a trial sequential analysis on the primary outcome for efficacy of psychological placebos compared with wait‐list and no‐treatment. The analysis shows that the required information size was reached. See Figure 8 above. MIREDIF: Minimum relevant difference
11
11
Funnel plot of comparison: 9.1. Efficacy psychological placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for continuous data.
12
12
We performed a trial sequential analysis on the primary outcome for efficacy of pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list and no‐treatment. The TSA showed the cumulated Z curve enters the futility area. See Figure 10 above. MIREDIF: Minimum relevant difference
13
13
We performed a trial sequential analysis on the primary outcome for efficacy of physical placebos compared with wait‐list and no‐treatment. The analysis shows that the required information size was reached. See Figure 11 above. MIREDIF: Minimum relevant difference
14
14
Funnel plot of comparison: 11.1 Efficacy of physical placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for continuous data.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2: Usual care versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for all mental health disorders, Outcome 1: Usual care compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for continuous data
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2: Usual care versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for all mental health disorders, Outcome 2: Usual care compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for dichotomous data
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6: All placebos versus waitl‐list or no‐treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 1: All placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for continuous data
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6: All placebos versus waitl‐list or no‐treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 2: All placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for dichotomous data
7.1
7.1. Analysis
Comparison 7: Serious adverse events of placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 1: All placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for dichotomous data
7.2
7.2. Analysis
Comparison 7: Serious adverse events of placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 2: Psychological placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for dichotomous data
7.3
7.3. Analysis
Comparison 7: Serious adverse events of placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 3: Pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for dichotomous data
7.4
7.4. Analysis
Comparison 7: Serious adverse events of placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 4: Physical placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for dichotomous data
8.1
8.1. Analysis
Comparison 8: Non‐serious adverse events of all placebos versus wait‐list or no‐ treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 1: All placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for dichotomous data
8.2
8.2. Analysis
Comparison 8: Non‐serious adverse events of all placebos versus wait‐list or no‐ treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 2: Psychological placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for dichotomous data
8.3
8.3. Analysis
Comparison 8: Non‐serious adverse events of all placebos versus wait‐list or no‐ treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 3: Pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for dichotomous data
8.4
8.4. Analysis
Comparison 8: Non‐serious adverse events of all placebos versus wait‐list or no‐ treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 4: Physical placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for dichotomous data
9.1
9.1. Analysis
Comparison 9: Psychological placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 1: Psychological placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for continuous data
9.2
9.2. Analysis
Comparison 9: Psychological placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 2: Psychological placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for dichotomous data
10.1
10.1. Analysis
Comparison 10: Pharmacological placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 1: Pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for continuous data
10.2
10.2. Analysis
Comparison 10: Pharmacological placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 2: Pharmacological placebos compared with no‐treatment for continuous data
11.1
11.1. Analysis
Comparison 11: Physical placebo versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with mental health disorders, Outcome 1: Physical placebos compared with wait‐list/no‐treatment for continuous data
12.1
12.1. Analysis
Comparison 12: All placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders for continuous data, Outcome 1: Efficacy of all placebos for people with substance use disorders
12.2
12.2. Analysis
Comparison 12: All placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders for continuous data, Outcome 2: Efficacy of all placebos for people with sleep‐wake disorders
12.3
12.3. Analysis
Comparison 12: All placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders for continuous data, Outcome 3: Efficacy of all placebos for people with depression
12.4
12.4. Analysis
Comparison 12: All placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders for continuous data, Outcome 4: Efficacy of all placebos for people with post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
12.5
12.5. Analysis
Comparison 12: All placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders for continuous data, Outcome 5: Efficacy of all placebos for people with anxiety disorders
12.6
12.6. Analysis
Comparison 12: All placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders for continuous data, Outcome 6: Efficacy of all placebos for people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or attention deficit disorder (ADD)
12.7
12.7. Analysis
Comparison 12: All placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders for continuous data, Outcome 7: Efficacy of all placebos for people with neurodegenerative disorders
13.1
13.1. Analysis
Comparison 13: Psychological placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders continuous data, Outcome 1: Efficacy of all placebos for people with substance use disorders
13.2
13.2. Analysis
Comparison 13: Psychological placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders continuous data, Outcome 2: Efficacy of all placebos for people with sleep‐wake disorders
13.3
13.3. Analysis
Comparison 13: Psychological placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders continuous data, Outcome 3: Efficacy of all placebos for people with depression
13.4
13.4. Analysis
Comparison 13: Psychological placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders continuous data, Outcome 4: Efficacy of all placebos for people with post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
13.5
13.5. Analysis
Comparison 13: Psychological placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders continuous data, Outcome 5: Efficacy of all placebos for people with anxiety disorders
14.1
14.1. Analysis
Comparison 14: Pharmacological placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders continuous data, Outcome 1: Efficacy of all placebos for people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or attention deficit disorder (ADD)
15.1
15.1. Analysis
Comparison 15: Physical placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders continuous data, Outcome 1: Efficacy of all placebos for people with sleep‐wake disorders
15.2
15.2. Analysis
Comparison 15: Physical placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders continuous data, Outcome 2: Efficacy of all placebos for people with depression
15.3
15.3. Analysis
Comparison 15: Physical placebos versus wait‐list or no‐treatment for people with specific mental health disorders continuous data, Outcome 3: Efficacy of all placebos for people with anxiety disorders
16.1
16.1. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 1: Type of active intervention
16.2
16.2. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 2: Type of active intervention
16.3
16.3. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 3: Risk of bias
16.4
16.4. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 4: Risk of bias
16.5
16.5. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 5: Type of outcome domain
16.6
16.6. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 6: Type of outcome domain
16.7
16.7. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 7: Awareness of placebo intervention
16.8
16.8. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 8: Awareness of placebo intervention
16.9
16.9. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 9: The trial objective
16.10
16.10. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 10: The trial objective
16.11
16.11. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 11: Mean age of participants
16.12
16.12. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 12: Mean age of participants
16.13
16.13. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 13: Duration of treatment
16.14
16.14. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 14: Duration of treatment
16.15
16.15. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 15: Mental health diagnoses
16.16
16.16. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 16: Mental health diagnoses
16.17
16.17. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 17: Affiliation bias
16.18
16.18. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 18: Risk of bias (participants and personnel excluded)
16.19
16.19. Analysis
Comparison 16: Subgroup analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 19: Imputed data
17.1
17.1. Analysis
Comparison 17: Subgroup analyses for psychological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 1: Type of active intervention
17.2
17.2. Analysis
Comparison 17: Subgroup analyses for psychological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 2: Risk of bias
17.3
17.3. Analysis
Comparison 17: Subgroup analyses for psychological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 3: Type of outcome domain
17.4
17.4. Analysis
Comparison 17: Subgroup analyses for psychological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 4: Awareness of placebo intervention
17.5
17.5. Analysis
Comparison 17: Subgroup analyses for psychological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 5: The trial objective
17.6
17.6. Analysis
Comparison 17: Subgroup analyses for psychological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 6: Mean age of participants
17.7
17.7. Analysis
Comparison 17: Subgroup analyses for psychological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 7: Duration of treatment
17.8
17.8. Analysis
Comparison 17: Subgroup analyses for psychological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 8: Type of psychological placebo
17.9
17.9. Analysis
Comparison 17: Subgroup analyses for psychological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 9: Mode of psychological placebo
17.10
17.10. Analysis
Comparison 17: Subgroup analyses for psychological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 10: Mental health diagnoses
17.11
17.11. Analysis
Comparison 17: Subgroup analyses for psychological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 11: Affiliation bias
17.12
17.12. Analysis
Comparison 17: Subgroup analyses for psychological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 12: Imputed data
18.1
18.1. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 1: Type of active intervention
18.2
18.2. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 2: Type of active intervention
18.3
18.3. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 3: Risk of bias
18.4
18.4. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 4: Risk of bias
18.5
18.5. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 5: Type of outcome domain
18.6
18.6. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 6: Type of outcome domain
18.7
18.7. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 7: Awareness of placebo intervention
18.8
18.8. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 8: Awareness of placebo intervention
18.9
18.9. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 9: The trial objective
18.10
18.10. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 10: The trial objective
18.11
18.11. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 11: Mean age of participants
18.12
18.12. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 12: Mean age of participants
18.13
18.13. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 13: Duration of treatment
18.14
18.14. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 14: Duration of treatment
18.15
18.15. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 15: Mental health diagnoses
18.16
18.16. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 16: Mental health diagnoses
18.17
18.17. Analysis
Comparison 18: Subgroup analyses for pharmacological placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 17: Imputed data
19.1
19.1. Analysis
Comparison 19: Subgroup analyses for physical placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 1: Type of active intervention
19.2
19.2. Analysis
Comparison 19: Subgroup analyses for physical placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 2: Risk of bias
19.3
19.3. Analysis
Comparison 19: Subgroup analyses for physical placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 3: Type of outcome domain
19.4
19.4. Analysis
Comparison 19: Subgroup analyses for physical placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 4: Awareness of placebo intervention
19.5
19.5. Analysis
Comparison 19: Subgroup analyses for physical placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 5: The trial objective
19.6
19.6. Analysis
Comparison 19: Subgroup analyses for physical placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 6: Mean age of participants
19.7
19.7. Analysis
Comparison 19: Subgroup analyses for physical placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 7: Duration of treatment
19.8
19.8. Analysis
Comparison 19: Subgroup analyses for physical placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 8: Type of physical placebo
19.9
19.9. Analysis
Comparison 19: Subgroup analyses for physical placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 9: Mental health diagnoses
19.10
19.10. Analysis
Comparison 19: Subgroup analyses for physical placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 10: Imputed data
20.1
20.1. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 1: Type of active intervention
20.2
20.2. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 2: Type of active intervention
20.3
20.3. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 3: Risk of bias
20.4
20.4. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 4: Risk of bias
20.5
20.5. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 5: Type of outcome domain
20.6
20.6. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 6: Mean age of participants
20.7
20.7. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 7: Duration of treatment
20.8
20.8. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 8: Duration of treatment
20.9
20.9. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 9: Type of usual care
20.10
20.10. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 10: Type of usual care
20.11
20.11. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 11: Standarised usual care
20.12
20.12. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 12: Standarised usual care
20.13
20.13. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 13: Mode of psychological treatment in usual care
20.14
20.14. Analysis
Comparison 20: Subgroup analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment for continuous data, Outcome 14: Imputed data
21.1
21.1. Analysis
Comparison 21: Sensitivity analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 1: Fixed effects
21.2
21.2. Analysis
Comparison 21: Sensitivity analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 2: Fixed effects
21.3
21.3. Analysis
Comparison 21: Sensitivity analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 3: End of intervention (post‐treatment scores, changes scores excluded)
21.4
21.4. Analysis
Comparison 21: Sensitivity analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 4: Type of data collection
21.5
21.5. Analysis
Comparison 21: Sensitivity analyses for all placebos compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 5: Transformed data for TSA analysis
22.1
22.1. Analysis
Comparison 22: Sensitivity analyses for psychological placebo compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 1: Fixed effects
22.2
22.2. Analysis
Comparison 22: Sensitivity analyses for psychological placebo compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 2: End of intervention (post‐treatment scores)
22.3
22.3. Analysis
Comparison 22: Sensitivity analyses for psychological placebo compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 3: Transformed data for TSA analysis
23.1
23.1. Analysis
Comparison 23: Sensitivity analyses for pharmacological placebo compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 1: Fixed effects
23.2
23.2. Analysis
Comparison 23: Sensitivity analyses for pharmacological placebo compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 2: Fixed effects
23.3
23.3. Analysis
Comparison 23: Sensitivity analyses for pharmacological placebo compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 3: End of intervention (post‐treatment scores)
23.4
23.4. Analysis
Comparison 23: Sensitivity analyses for pharmacological placebo compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 4: Transformed data for TSA analysis
24.1
24.1. Analysis
Comparison 24: Sensitivity analyses for physical placebo compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 1: Fixed effects
24.2
24.2. Analysis
Comparison 24: Sensitivity analyses for physical placebo compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 2: End of intervention (post‐treatment scores)
24.3
24.3. Analysis
Comparison 24: Sensitivity analyses for physical placebo compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 3: Transformed data for TSA analysis
25.1
25.1. Analysis
Comparison 25: Sensitivity analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 1: Fixed effects
25.2
25.2. Analysis
Comparison 25: Sensitivity analyses for usual care compared with wait‐list or no‐treatment, Outcome 2: Transformed data for TSA analysis
26.1
26.1. Analysis
Comparison 26: Sensitivity analysis for serious adverse events of placebos, Outcome 1: Data in RR for TSA analysis
27.1
27.1. Analysis
Comparison 27: Sensitivity analysis for non‐serious adverse events of placebos, Outcome 1: Data in RR for TSA analysis
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References

References to studies included in this review

Abikoff 2004 {published data only}
    1. Abikoff H, Hechtman L, Klein RG.Social functioning in children with ADHD treated with long-term methylphenidate and multimodal psychosocial treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2004;43(7):820-9. - PubMed
    1. Abikoff H.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review [personal communication]. Email to A Todorovac 23rd of August 2019.
    1. Klein RG, Abikoff H, Hechtman L, Weiss G.Design and rationale of controlled study of long-term methylphenidate and multimodal psychosocial treatment in children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2004;43(7):792-801. - PubMed
Allen 1998 {published data only}
    1. Allen JB.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review [personal communication]. Email to A Todorovac 28th of August 2019.
    1. Allen JJ, Schnyer RN, Hitt SK.The efficacy of acupuncture in the treatment of major depression in women. Psychological Science 1998;9(5):397-401.
Allen 2006 {published data only}
    1. Allen JB.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review [personal communication]. Email to: A Todorovac 28th of August 2019.
    1. Allen JJ, Schnyer RN, Chambers AS, Hitt SK, Moreno FA, Manber R.Acupuncture for depression: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2006;67(11):1665-73. - PubMed
Alvarez 1997 {published data only}
    1. Alvarez JR.The effects of anger management training on depression, anger, self-concept, and treatment responsibility in a sample of drug-dependent individuals in a therapeutic community. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: the Sciences and Engineering 1997;58(4-B):2108.
Ascher 1979 {published data only}
    1. Ascher LM, Turner R.Paradoxical intention and insomnia: an experimental investigation. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1979;17(4):408-11. - PubMed
Ayen 2004 {published data only}
    1. Ayen I, Hautzinger M.Cognitive behavior therapy for depression in menopausal women. A controlled, randomized treatment study [Kognitive Verhaltenstherapie bei Depressionen im Klimakterium: Eine kontrollierte, randomiserte Interventionsstudie]. Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie 2004;33(4):290-9.
    1. Ayen I.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review (personal communication). Email to EG Faltinsen 9th of September 2019.
Berg 1983 {published data only}
    1. Berg I, Forsythe I, Holt P, Watts J.A controlled trial of ‘Senokot’ in faecal soiling treated by behavioural methods. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 1983;24(4):543-9. - PubMed
Borden 1986 {published data only}
    1. Borden, KA.Attributional Outcomes: the Subtle Messages of Treatments for Attention Deficit Disorder. Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 1986.
    1. Borden KA, Brown RT.Attributional outcomes: The subtle messages of treatments for attention deficit disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research 1989;13(2):147-60.
Borkovec 1975 {published data only}
    1. Borkovec TD, Kaloupek DG, Slama KM.The facilitative effect of muscle tension-release in the relaxation treatment of sleep disturbance. Behavior Therapy 1975;6(3):301-9.
Borkovec 1976 {published data only}
    1. Borkovec TD, Weerts TC.Effects of progressive relaxation on sleep disturbance: an electroencephalographic evaluation. Psychosomatic Medicine 1976;38(3):173-80. - PubMed
Bornovalova 2008 {published data only}
    1. Bornovalova M.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review (personal communication). Email to A Todorovac. 21st of August 2019.
    1. Bornovalova MA.Distress tolerance treatment for inner-city drug users: a preliminary trial. Doctor’s Dissertation, University of Maryland 2008.
Bramston 1985 {published data only}
    1. Bramston P, Spence SH.Behavioural versus cognitive social-skills training with intellectually-handicapped adults. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1985;23(3):239-46. - PubMed
Brill 1964a {published data only}
    1. Brill NQ, Koegler RR, Epstein LJ, Forgy EW.Controlled study of psychiatric outpatient treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry 1964;10:581-95. - PubMed
    1. Brill NQ.Results of psychotherapy. California Medicine 1966;104(4):249-53. - PMC - PubMed
Brill 1964b {published data only}
    1. Brill NQ, Koegler RR, Epstein LJ, Forgy EW.Controlled study of psychiatric outpatient treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry 1964;10:581-95. - PubMed
Carlson 1993 {published data only}
    1. Carlson CL, Pelham WE, Milich R, Hoza B.ADHD boys’ performance and attributions following success and failure: drug effects and individual differences. Cognitive Therapy and Research 1993;17:269-87.
Carter 2003 {published data only}
    1. Carter JC, Olmsted MP, Kaplan AS, McCabe RE, Mills JS, Aime A.Self-help for bulimia nervosa: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry 2003;160(5):973-8. - PubMed
Crisp 1991 {published data only}
    1. Crisp AH, Norton K, Gowers S, Halek C, Bowyer C, Yeldham D, et al.A controlled study of the effect of therapies aimed at adolescent and family psychopathology in Anorexia Nervosa. British Journal of Psychiatry: the Journal of Mental Science 1991;159:325-33. - PubMed
    1. Gowers S, Norton K, Halek C, Crisp AH.Outcome of outpatient psychotherapy in a random allocation treatment study of anorexia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders 1994;15(2):165-77. - PubMed
    1. Gowers S, Norton K, Yelsham D.The St George's prospective treatment study of anorexia nervosa: a discussion of methodological problems. International Journal of Eating Disorders 1989;8:445-54.
Crouch 1988 {published data only}
    1. Crouch G, Robson M, Hallstrom C.Benzodiazepine dependent patients and their psychological treatment. Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 1988;12(4):503-10. - PubMed
    1. Hallström C, Crouch G, Robsen M, Shine P.The treatment of tranquillizer dependence by propranolol. Postgraduate Medical Journal 1988;64(Suppl 2):40-4. - PubMed
Doty 1975 {published data only}
    1. Doty, DW.Role playing and incentives in the modification of the social interaction of chronic psychiatric patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1975;43(5):676-82. - PubMed
Double 1993 {published data only}
    1. Double DB, Warren GC, Evans M, Rowlands MP.Efficacy of maintenance use of anticholinergic agents. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1993;88:381-4. - PubMed
Ehlers 2014 {published data only}
    1. Ehlers A, Hackmann A, Grey N, Wild J, Liness S, Albert I, et al.A randomized controlled trial of 7-day intensive and standard weekly cognitive therapy for PTSD and emotion-focused supportive therapy. American Journal of Psychiatry 2014;171(3):294-304. - PMC - PubMed
Espie 1989a {published data only}
    1. Espie CA, Brooks DN, Lindsay WR.An evaluation of tailored psychological treatment of insomnia. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1989;20(2):143-53. - PubMed
    1. Espie CA, Lindsay WR, Brooks DN, Hood EM, Turvey T.A controlled comparative investigation of psychological treatments for chronic sleep-onset insomnia. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1989;27(1):79-88. - PubMed
Etringer 1982 {published data only}
    1. Etringer BD, Cash TF, Rimm DC.Behavioral, affective, and cognitive effects of participant modeling and an equally credible placebo. Behavior Therapy 1982;13(4):476-85.
Foa 1991 {published data only}
    1. Foa EB, Rothbaum BO, Riggs DS, Murdock TB.Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims: a comparison between cognitive-behavioral procedures and counselling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1991;59(5):715-23. - PubMed
Foa 2018 {published data only}
    1. Foa EB, McLean CP, Zang Y, Rosenfield D, Yadin E, Yarvis JS, et al.Effect of prolonged exposure therapy delivered over 2 weeks vs 8 weeks vs present-centered therapy on PTSD symptom severity in military personnel: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2018;319(4):354-64. - PMC - PubMed
Freire 2007 {published data only}
    1. Freire AO, Sugai GC, Chrispin FS, Togeiro SM, Yamamura Y, Mello LE, et al.Treatment of moderate obstructive sleep apnea syndrome with acupuncture: a randomised, placebo-controlled pilot trial. Sleep Medicine 2007;8(1):43-50. - PubMed
Fuchs 1977 {published data only}
    1. Fuchs CZ, Rehn LP.A self-control behavior therapy program for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1977;45(2):206-15. - PubMed
Glogowska 2000 {published data only}
    1. Glogowska M, Roulstone S, Enderby P, Peters TJ.Randomised controlled trial of community based speech and language therapy in preschool children. BMJ 2000;321(7266):923-6. - PMC - PubMed
Goldstein 2000 {published data only}
    1. Goldstein AJ, Beurs E, Chambless Dl, Wilson KA.EMDR for panic disorder with agoraphobia: comparison with waiting list and credible attention-placebo control conditions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2000;68(6):947-56. - PubMed
Goldwasser 1987 {published data only}
    1. Goldwasser AN, Auerbach SM, Harkins SW.Cognitive, affective, and behavioural effects of reminiscence group therapy on demented elderly. Aging and Human Development 1987;25(3):209-22. - PubMed
Hekmat 1984 {published data only}
    1. Hekmat H, Lubitz R, Deal R.Semantic desensitization: a paradigmatic intervention approach to anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychology 1984;40(2):463-6. - PubMed
Hippman 2016 {published data only}
    1. Hippman C, Ringrose A, Inglis A, Cheek J, Albert AY, Remick R, et al.A pilot randomized clinical trial evaluating the impact of genetic counselling for serious mental illnesses. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2016;77(2):e190-8. - PMC - PubMed
Howlin 2007 {published data only}
    1. Howlin P, Gordon KR, Pasco G, Wade A, Charman T.The effectiveness of picture exchange communication system (PECS) training for teachers of children with autism: a pragmatic,group randomised controlled trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2007;48(5):473-81. - PubMed
Karst 2007 {published data only}
    1. Karst M, Winterhalter M, Münte S, Francki B, Hondronikos A, Eckardt A, et al.Auricular acupuncture for dental anxiety: a randomized controlled trial. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2007;104(2):295-300. - PubMed
    1. Karst M.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review (personal communication). Email to: EG Faltinsen 5th of September 2019.
Kelley 2012 {published data only}
    1. Kelley J.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review (personal communication). Email to: A Todorovac 12th of August 2019.
    1. Kelley JM, Kaptchuk TJ, Cusin C, Lipkin S, Fava M.Open-label placebo for major depressive disorder: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 2012;81(5):312-4. - PMC - PubMed
Kennedy 1974 {published data only}
    1. Kennedy TD, Kimura HK.Transfer, behavioral improvement, and anxiety reduction in systematic desensitization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1974;42(5):720-8. - PubMed
Kilmann 1987 {published data only}
    1. Kilmann PR, Milan RJ, Boland JP, Nankin HR, Davidson E, West MO, et al.Group treatment of secondary erectile dysfunction. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy 1987;13(3):168-82. - PubMed
    1. Kilmann PR, Milan RJ Jr, Boland JP, Davidson E, West MO, Sablis RF, et al.The sexual interactions of men with secondary erectile dysfunction. Journal of Sex Education and Therapy 1988;14(1):46-9.
    1. Kilmann PR, Milan RJ Jr, Boland JP, Nankin HR, Sablis RF, West MO, et al.The sexual interactions of men with secondary erectile dysfunction. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association in Los Angeles 1985;1:46-9.
Klein 1977 {published data only}
    1. Klein SA, Deffenbacher JL.Relaxation and exercise for hyperactive impulsive children. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1977;45:1159-62. - PubMed
Klerman 1974a {published data only}
    1. Klerman GL, Dimascio A, Weismann M, Prusoff B, Paykel ES.Treatment of depression by drugs and psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychiatry 1974;131(2):186-91. - PubMed
    1. Paykel ES, Dimascio A, Haskell D, Prusoff BA.Effects of maintenance amitriptyline and psychotherapy on symptoms of depression. Psychological Medicine 1975;5(1):67-77. - PubMed
    1. Paykel ES, DiMascio A, Klerman GL, Prusoff BA.Maintenance therapy of depression. Pharmakopsychiatrie, Neuro-Psychopharmakologie 1976;9:127-39. - PubMed
    1. Paykel ES, Weissman MM, Prusoff BA.Social maladjustment and severity of depression. Comprehensive Psychiatry 1978;19(2):121-8. - PubMed
    1. Weissman MM, Klerman GL, Paykel ES, Prusoff B.Treatment effects on the social adjustment of depressed patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 1974;30:771-8. - PubMed
Klerman 1974b {published data only}
    1. Klerman GL, Dimascio A, Weismann M, Prusoff B, Paykel ES.Treatment of depression by drugs and psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychiatry 1974;131(2):186-91. - PubMed
Klosko 1990 {published data only}
    1. Klosko JS, Barlow DH, Tassinari R, Cerny JA.A comparison of alprazolam and behavior therapy in treatment of panic disorder: correction. Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research 1994;3(2):163-79. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Klosko JS, Barlow DH, Tassinari R, Cerny JA.A comparison of alprazolam and behavior therapy in treatment of panic disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1990;58(1):77-84. - PubMed
Krapfl 1970 {published data only}
    1. Krapfl JE, Nawas MM.Differential ordering of stimulus presentation in systematic desensitization. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1970;75(3):333-7. - PubMed
Kwan 2017 {published data only}
    1. Kwan R.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review [personal communication]. Email to: A Todorovac 26th of August 2019.
    1. Kwan RY, Leung MC, Lai CK.Acupressure for agitation in nursing home residents with dementia: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2014;15(410):1-7. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Kwan RY, Leung MCP, Lai CK.A randomized controlled trial examining the effect of acupressure on agitation and salivary cortisol in nursing home residents with dementia. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders 2017;44(1-2):92-104. - PubMed
Lacy 1990 {published data only}
    1. Lacy MK.The effect of short term autogenic training on the stress reactivity of hospitalized emotionally disturbed adolescents. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, Oklahoma State University 1996.
Lai 2004 {published data only}
    1. Lai CK, Chi I, Kayser-Jones J.A randomized controlled trial of a specific reminiscence approach to promote the well-being of nursing home residents with dementia. International Psychogeriatrics 2004;16(1):33-49. - PubMed
    1. Lai K.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review [personal communication]. Email to: A Todorovac 6th of September 2019.
Lang 1965 {published data only}
    1. Lang OJ, Lazovik AD.Experimental desensitization of a phobia. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 1963;66:519-25. - PubMed
    1. Lang PJ, Lazovik AD, Reynolds DJ.Desensitization, suggestibility, and pseudotherapy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1965;70(6):395-402. - PubMed
Legrand 2016 {published data only}
    1. Legrand F.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review [personal communication]. Email to: A Todorovac 14th of August 2019.
    1. Legrand FD, Neff EM.Efficacy of exercise as an adjunct treatment for clinically depressed inpatients during the initial stages of antidepressant pharmacotherapy: an open randomized controlled trial. Journal of Affective Disorders 2016;191:139-44. - PubMed
Lick 1975 {published data only}
    1. Lick J.Expectancy, false galvanic skin response feedback, and systematic desensitization in the modification of phobic behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1975;43(4):557-67. - PubMed
Lick 1977 {published data only}
    1. Lick JR, Heffler D.Relaxation training and attention placebo in the treatment of severe insomnia. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1977;45(2):153-61. - PubMed
Liddle 1990 {published data only}
    1. Liddle B, Spence SH.Cognitive-behaviour therapy with depressed primary school children: A cautionary note. Behavioural Psychotherapy 1990;18(2):85-102.
Matson 1980 {published data only}
    1. Matson JL, Marchetti A, Adkins JA.Comparison of operant- and independence-training procedures for mentally retarded adults. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 1980;84(5):487-94. - PubMed
McLachlan 1991 {published data only}
    1. McLachlan DR, Dalton AJ, Kruck TP, Bell MY, Smith WL, Kalow W, et al.Intramuscular desferrioxamine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 1991;337(8753):1304-8. - PubMed
    1. McLachlan DRC, Smith WL, Kruck TP.Desferrioxamine and Alzheimer’s disease: video home behavior assessment of clinical course and measures of brain aluminum. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 1993;15(6):602-7. - PubMed
Mealiea 1971 {published data only}
    1. Mealiea WL, Nawas MM.The comparative effectiveness of systematic desensitization and implosive therapy in the treatment of snake phobia. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1971;2(2):85-94.
Milby 1980 {published data only}
    1. Milby JB, Clarke C, Toro C, Thornton S, Rickert D.Effectiveness of urine surveillance as an adjunct to outpatient psychotherapy for drug abusers. International Journal of the Addictions 1980;15(7):993-1001. - PubMed
Miranda 1997 {published data only}
    1. Miranda A, Arlandis P, Soriano M.Instruction in strategies and attributional training: Effects on the problem-solving and self-concept of students’ with learning disabilities [Instrucción en estrategias y entrenamiento atribucional: efectos sobre la resolución de problemas y el autoconcepto de los estudiantes con dificultades en el aprendizaje]. Infancia y Aprendizaje 1997;20(80):37-52.
Mitchell 2008 {published data only}
    1. Mitchell C, Mansfield D, Rautenbach S.Coloured filters and reading accuracy, comprehension and rate: a placebo-controlled study. Perceptual and Motor Skills 2008;106(2):517-32. - PubMed
Nandi 1976 {published data only}
    1. Nandi DN, Ajmany S, Ganguli H, Banerjee G, Boral GC, Ghosh A, et al.A clinical evaluation of depressives found in a rural survey in India. British Journal of Psychiatry 1976;128:523-7. - PubMed
Nicassio 1974 {published data only}
    1. Nicassio P, Bootzin R.A comparison of progressive relaxation and autogenic training as treatments for insomnia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1974;83(3):253-60. - PubMed
Pearl 1956 {published data only}
    1. Pearl D, Vander Kamp H, Olsen AL, Greenberg PD, Armitage SG.The effects of reserpine on schizophrenic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 1956;112:198-204. - PubMed
Peck 1976 {published data only}
    1. Peck CL.Desensitization for the treatment of fear in the high level adult retardate. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1977;15(2):137-48. - PubMed
Pelham 1992 {published data only}
    1. Milich R, Carlson CL, Pelham WE Jr, Licht BG.Effects of methylphenidate on the persistence of ADHD boys following failure experiences. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 1991;19(5):519-36. - PubMed
    1. Pelham WE, Murphy DA, Vannatta K, Milich R, Licht BG, Gnagy EM, et al.Methylphenidate and attributions in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1992;60(2):282-92. - PubMed
Pendleton 1983 {published data only}
    1. Pedleton MG, Higgins RL.A comparison of negative practice and systematic desensitization in the treatment of acrophobia. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1983;14(4):317-23. - PubMed
Pillman 2001 {published data only}
    1. Peterson MA, Patterson B, Pillman BM, Battista MA.Cognitive recovery following alcohol detoxification: a computerised remediation study. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation 2002;12(1):63-74.
    1. Pillman BM.Computerized cognitive remediation with recently detoxified alcoholics. Dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, Fresno Campus 2000.
Poland 2013 {published data only}
    1. Poland RE, Gertsik L, Favreau JT, Smith SI, Mirocha JM, Rao U, et al.Open-label randomized parallel-group controlled clinical trial of massage for treatment of depression in HIV-infected subjects. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 2013;19(4):334-40. - PMC - PubMed
Powers 2004 {published data only}
    1. Powers MB, Smits JA, Telch MJ.Disentangling the effects of safety-behavior utilization and safety-behavior availability during exposure-based treatment: a placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2004;72(3):448-54. - PubMed
Powers 2008a {published data only}
    1. Powers MB, Smiths JA, Whitley D, Bystritsky A, Telch MJ.The effect of attributional processes concerning medication taking on return of fear. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2008;76(3):478-90. - PubMed
Powers 2008b {published data only}
    1. Powers MB, Smiths JA, Whitley D, Bystritsky A, Telch MJ.The effect of attributional processes concerning medication taking on return of fear. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2008;76(3):478-90. - PubMed
Proudfoot 2013 {published data only}
    1. Proudfoot J, Clarke J, Birch MR, Whitton AE, Parker G, Manicavasagar V, et al.Impact of a mobile phone and web program on symptom and functional outcomes for people with mild- to-moderate depression, anxiety and stress: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry 2013;13(312):1-12. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Proudfoot J.Re: Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review [personal communication]. Email to: A Todorovac 26th of August 2019.
Quayhagen 1995 {published data only}
    1. Quayhagen MP, Quayhagen M, Corbeil RR, Roth PA, Rodgers JA.A dyadic remediation program for care recipients with dementia. Nursing Research 1995;44(3):153-9. - PubMed
Rabkin 1990 {published data only}
    1. Liebowitz M, Quitkin FM, Stewart JW, McGrath PJ, Harrison WM, Markowitz JS, et al.Antidepressant efficacy in atypical depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 1988;45(2):129-37. - PubMed
    1. Quitkin FM, McGrath PJ, Stewart JW, Harrison W, Wager SG, Nunes E, et al.Phenelzine and imipramine in mood reactive depressives: further delineation of the syndrome of atypical depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 1989;46(9):787-93. - PubMed
    1. Rabkin JG, McGrath PJ, Quitkin FM, Tricamo E, Stewart JW, Klein DF.Effects of pill-giving on maintenance of placebo response in patients with chronic mild depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 1990;147(12):1622-6. - PubMed
Rapee 2006 {published data only}
    1. Rapee R.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review [personal communication]. Email to: A Todorovac 29th of August 2019.
    1. Rapee RM, Abbott MJ, Lyneham HJ.Bibliotherapy for children With anxiety disorders using written materials for parents: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2006;74(3):436-44. - PubMed
Rapee 2007 {published data only}
    1. Rapee R.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review [personal communication]. Email to: A Todorovac 29th of August 2019.
    1. Rapee RM, Abbott MJ, Baillie AJ, Gaston JE.Treatment of social phobia through pure self-help and therapist-augmented self-help. British Journal of Psychiatry 2007;191:246-52. - PubMed
Robin 1976 {published data only}
    1. Robin A.Rationing out-patients: a defence of the waiting list. British Journal of Psychiatry 1976;129:138-41. - PubMed
Roehrich 1993 {published data only}
    1. Roehrich L, Goldman MS.Experience-dependent neuropsychological recovery and the treatment of alcoholism. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1993;61(5):812-21. - PubMed
Rosa‐Alcatraz 2009 {published data only}
    1. Olivares J.Program IAFS. Protocol for the treatment of social phobia in adolescents [Programa IAFS. Protocolo para el tratamiento de la fobia social enadolescentes]. Madrid: Pirámide 2005;1.
    1. Rosa-Alcázar AI, Olivares-Olivares PJ, Olivares J.The role of non-specific effects in the psychological treatment of adolescents with social phobia [Papel de los efectos inespecíficos en el tratamiento psicológico de adolescentes con fobia social]. Anuario de Psicologia 2009;40(1):43-61.
Rosen 1976 {published data only}
    1. Rosen GM, Glasgow RE, Barrera M.A controlled study to assess the clinical efficacy of totally self-administrated systematic desensitization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1976;44(2):208-17. - PubMed
Roth 1964 {published data only}
    1. Lorr M, McNair DM, Weinstein GJ.Early effects of chlordiazepoxide (Librium) used with psychotherapy. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1963;1:257-70. - PubMed
    1. Roth I, Rhudick PJ, Shaskan DA, Slobin MS, Wilkinson AE, Young HH.Long-term effects on psychotherapy of initial treatment conditions. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1964;2:283-97. - PubMed
Rupert 1978 {published data only}
    1. Rupert PA, Holmes DS.Effects of multiple sessions of true and placebo heart rate biofeedback training on the heart rates and anxiety levels of anxious patients during and following treatment. Psychophysiology 1978;15(6):582-90. - PubMed
Shalev 2012 {published data only}
    1. Shalev AY, Ankri Y, Isreali-Shalev Y, Peleg T, Adessky R, Freedman S.Prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder by early treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry 2012;69(2):166-76. - PubMed
Shealy 1979 {published data only}
    1. Shealy RC.The effectiveness of various treatment techniques on different degrees and durations of sleep-onset insomnia. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1979;17(6):541-6. - PubMed
Sibilio 1957 {published data only}
    1. Sibilio JP, Andrew G, Dart D, Moore KB, Stehman A.Treatment of chronic schizophrenia with promazine hydrochloride. AMA Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 1957;78(4):419-24. - PubMed
Sommerness 1955 {published data only}
    1. Sommerness MD, Lucero RJ, Hamlon JS, Erickson JL, Matthews R.A controlled study of reserpine on chronically disturbed patients. JAMA Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 1955;74(3):316-9. - PubMed
Steinmark 1974 {published data only}
    1. Steinmark SW, Borkovec TD.Active and placebo treatment effects on moderate insomnia under counterdemand and positive demand instructions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1974;83(2):157-63. - PubMed
Szymanski 1995 {published data only}
    1. Szymanski J, O'Donohue W.The potential role of state-dependent learning in cognitive therapy with spider phobics. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy 1995;13(2):131-50.
    1. Szymanski J.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review [personal communication]. Email to: A Todorovac 20th of August 2019.
Tan 1986 {published data only}
    1. Tan SY, Bruni J.Cognitive-behavior therapy with adult patients with epilepsy: a controlled outcome study. Epilepsia 1986;27(3):225-33. - PubMed
Teri 1997 {published data only}
    1. Teri L, Logsdon RG, Uomoto J, McCurry SM.Behavioral treatment of depression in dementia patients: a controlled clinical trial. Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 1997;52(4):159-66. - PubMed
    1. Teri L.Inclusion of study in Cochrane Systematic Review [personal communication]. Email to: A Todorovac 26th of August 2019.
Tori 1973 {published data only}
    1. Tori C, Worell L.Reduction of human avoidant behavior. A comparison of counterconditioning, expectancy, and cognitive information approaches. Clinical Psychology 1973;41(2):269-78. - PubMed
Trexler 1972 {published data only}
    1. Trexler, L.Rational-emotive therapy, placebo, and no-treatment effects on public-speaking anxiety. Doctoral dissertation, Temple University AnnArbor, Mich.: University Microfilms 1971;71-31(063).
    1. Trexler LD, Karst TO.Rational-emotive therapy, placebo, and no-treatment effects on public-speaking anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psyhology 1972;79(1):60-7. - PubMed
Turner 1979 {published data only}
    1. Ascher ML, Turner RM.A comparison of two methods for the administration of paradoxical intention. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1980;18(2):121-6. - PubMed
    1. Turner RM, Ascher LM.Controlled comparison of progressive relaxation, stimulus control, and paradoxical intention therapies for insomnia. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1979;47(3):500-8. - PubMed
Vanderplate 1983 {published data only}
    1. Vanderplate C.Electromyograph biofeedback Treatment of sleep onset Insomnia: a controlled Investigation. Dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi 1978.
Watzl 1988 {published data only}
    1. Watzl H, Rist F, Olbrich R, Cohen R.Placebo injections and surveillance of alcohol intake during inpatient treatment of female alcoholics. Addictive Behaviors 1988;13(2):197-200. - PubMed
Weingaertner 1971 {published data only}
    1. Weingaertner AH.Self-administered aversive stimulation with hallucinating hospitalized schizophrenics. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1971;36(3):422-29. - PubMed
Whittaker 1963 {published data only}
    1. Whittaker CB, Hoy RM.Withdrawal of perphenazine in chronic schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 1963;109:422-7. - PubMed
Wilson 1980 {published data only}
    1. Wilson A, Davidson WJ, Blanchard R, White J.Disulfiram implantation. A placebo-controlled trial with two-year follow-up. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 1978;39(5):809-19. - PubMed
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Wolitzky 2009 {published data only}
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Wollersheim 1991 {published data only}
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References to studies excluded from this review

Adelman 1990 {published data only}
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Altenhofer 2007 {published data only}
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Andreasson 1990 {published data only}
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de Jongh 1995 {published data only}
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Dolhanty 2005 {published data only}
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Endicott 1964 {published data only}
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Gitlin 2013 {published data only}
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Hinsberger 2017 {published data only}
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Laessle 1988 {published data only}
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Litrownik 1978 {published data only}
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Sackley 2018 {published data only}
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Salt 2002 {published data only}
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Schultz 2002 {published data only}
    1. Schultz DE.The effectiveness of stress management on anxiety and depression. Doctor’s Dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology Fresno Campus 2002.
Sheikh 1986 {published data only}
    1. Sheikh JI, Hill RD, Yesavage JA.Long-term efficacy of cognitive training for age-associated memory impairment: a six-month follow-up study. Developmental Neuropsychology 1986;2(4):413-21.
Steiner 2011 {published data only}
    1. Steiner NJ, Sheldrick RC, Gotthelf D, Perrin EC.Computer-based attention training in the schools for children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a preliminary trial. Clinical Pediatrics 2011;50(7):615-22. - PubMed
Timko 1995 {published data only}
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Tomporowski 1984 {published data only}
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References to studies awaiting assessment

References to ongoing studies

Heitman 2017 {published data only}
    1. Internet-based attentional bias modification training as add-on to regular treatment in alcohol and cannabis dependent outpatients: a study protocol of a randomised control trial. Ongoing study. 18/05/2015. Contact author for more information. - PMC - PubMed
ISRCTN21392756 {published data only}
    1. Standardised stress management mental health training: does it have a beneficial effect?. Ongoing study. 06/09/2010. Contact author for more information.
ISRCTN35717198 {published data only}
    1. Cognitive training with non-invasive brain stimulation to treat binge eating disorder. Ongoing study. 03/05/2018. Contact author for more information.
NCT00044629 {published data only}
    1. Combined behavioral/pharmacologicaltTherapy for insomnia. Ongoing study. 05/09/2002. Contact author for more information.

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