Pathogenesis of Type 1 Diabetes: Established Facts and New Insights

Abstract

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease characterized by the T-cell-mediated destruction of insulin-producing β-cells in pancreatic islets. It generally occurs in genetically susceptible individuals, and genetics plays a major role in the development of islet autoimmunity. Furthermore, these processes are heterogeneous among individuals; hence, different endotypes have been proposed. In this review, we highlight the interplay between genetic predisposition and other non-genetic factors, such as viral infections, diet, and gut biome, which all potentially contribute to the aetiology of T1D. We also discuss a possible active role for β-cells in initiating the pathological processes. Another component in T1D predisposition is epigenetic influences, which represent a link between genetic susceptibility and environmental factors and may account for some of the disease heterogeneity. Accordingly, a shift towards personalized therapies may improve the treatment results and, therefore, result in better outcomes for individuals in the long-run. There is also a clear need for a better understanding of the preclinical phases of T1D and finding new predictive biomarkers for earlier diagnosis and therapy, with the final goal of reverting or even preventing the development of the disease.

Keywords: epigenetics; genetics; type 1 diabetes; viral infections; β-cell.

Figure 1

Simplified scheme of the pathogenic influences on Beta-cells in T1D. aabs—autoantibodies, aag.—autoantigen, ER—endoplasmic reticulum, EVEs—endogenous viral elements, IFNs—interferons, neoags.—neoantigens, ROS—reactive oxygen species, UPR—unfolded protein response.