Phytochemical Profile of Antibacterial Agents from Red Betel Leaf (Piper crocatum Ruiz and Pav) against Bacteria in Dental Caries

Abstract

Based on data from The Global Burden of Disease Study in 2016, dental and oral health problems, especially dental caries, are a disease experienced by almost half of the world's population (3.58 billion people). One of the main causes of dental caries is the pathogenesis of Streptococcus mutans. Prevention can be achieved by controlling S. mutans using an antibacterial agent. The most commonly used antibacterial for the treatment of dental caries is chlorhexidine. However, long-term use of chlorhexidine has been reported to cause resistance and some side effects. Therefore, the discovery of a natural antibacterial agent is an urgent need. A natural antibacterial agent that can be used are herbal medicines derived from medicinal plants. Piper crocatum Ruiz and Pav has the potential to be used as a natural antibacterial agent for treating dental and oral health problems. Several studies reported that the leaves of P. crocatum Ruiz and Pav contain secondary metabolites such as essential oils, flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, tannins, and phenolic compounds that are active against S. mutans. This review summarizes some information about P. crocatum Ruiz and Pav, various isolation methods, bioactivity, S. mutans bacteria that cause dental caries, biofilm formation mechanism, antibacterial properties, and the antibacterial mechanism of secondary metabolites in P. crocatum Ruiz and Pav.

Keywords: Piper crocatum Ruiz and Pav; Streptococcus mutans; antibacterial; phytochemical profiling; red betel leaf.

Figure 1

(A) Co-aggregation between S. mutans and filaments in developing dental biofilm; (B) typical corncob formation [30].

Figure 2

Contribution of S. mutans in the process of biofilm formation [39].

Figure 3

Pathway of inhibition of bacteria by antibacterial agents [73].

Figure 4

Catalytic reaction on the MurA enzyme [106].

Figure 5

Compounds obtained from the methanol extract of red betel leaf. (1) (8R)-8-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy)-propane-8-ol-4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; (2) 4-Allyl-2,6-dimethoxy-3-hydroxy-1-D-glucopyranoside; (3) 3-[(1E)-3-hydroxy-1-propen-1-yl]-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl-D-glucopyranoside; (4) Cimidahurinin; (5) Erigeside II; (6) Syringe; (7) β-phenylethyl-β-D-glucoside; (8) Methylsalicylate-2-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; (9) Icariside D1; (10) 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid-D-glucosylester; (11) Benzyl-β-D-glucoside; (12) Phenylmethyl-6-O-α-L-arabinofuranosyl-β-D-glucopyranoside; (13) Hydroxytyrosol-1glucopyranoside (14) Gentisic acid; (15) Catechaldehyde; (16) (S)-Menthiafolic acid; (17) Ioliolide; (18) 5β,6β-dihydroxy-3α-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-7E-Megastigmen-9-one; (19) (3E)-4-[(1S,2S,4S)-4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-1,2-dihydroxy-2,6,6-tri-methylcyclohexyl]3-buten-2-one; (20) (6S,9S)-roseoside; (21) Cuneataside E (22) N-trans-feruloyltyramine-4′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; (23) Syringaresinol-β-D-glucoside; and (24) Vitexin 2″-O-rhamnoside.

Figure 5

Compounds obtained from the methanol extract of red betel leaf. (1) (8R)-8-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy)-propane-8-ol-4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; (2) 4-Allyl-2,6-dimethoxy-3-hydroxy-1-D-glucopyranoside; (3) 3-[(1E)-3-hydroxy-1-propen-1-yl]-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl-D-glucopyranoside; (4) Cimidahurinin; (5) Erigeside II; (6) Syringe; (7) β-phenylethyl-β-D-glucoside; (8) Methylsalicylate-2-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; (9) Icariside D1; (10) 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid-D-glucosylester; (11) Benzyl-β-D-glucoside; (12) Phenylmethyl-6-O-α-L-arabinofuranosyl-β-D-glucopyranoside; (13) Hydroxytyrosol-1glucopyranoside (14) Gentisic acid; (15) Catechaldehyde; (16) (S)-Menthiafolic acid; (17) Ioliolide; (18) 5β,6β-dihydroxy-3α-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-7E-Megastigmen-9-one; (19) (3E)-4-[(1S,2S,4S)-4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-1,2-dihydroxy-2,6,6-tri-methylcyclohexyl]3-buten-2-one; (20) (6S,9S)-roseoside; (21) Cuneataside E (22) N-trans-feruloyltyramine-4′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; (23) Syringaresinol-β-D-glucoside; and (24) Vitexin 2″-O-rhamnoside.

Figure 6

Compounds obtained from the methanolic extract of red betel leaf (P. crocatum Ruiz and Pav). (25) β-sitosterol and (26) 2-(5′,6′-dimethoxy-3′,4′-methylenedioxyphenyl)-6-(3″,4″,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-dioxabiclo [3,3,0] octane.

Figure 7

Compounds obtained from the methanolic extract of red betel leaf (P. crocatum Ruiz and Pav). (27) Crocatin A; (28) Crocatin B; (29) Pachypodol [4′,5-dihydroxy-3,3′,7-trimethoxyflavone]; and (30) 1-Triacontanol.

Figure 8

Compounds obtained from the methanolic extract of red betel leaf. (31) Pipcroside A; (32) Pipcroside B; (33) Pipcroside C; and (34) Bicyclo [3.2.1] octanoid neolignans.

Figure 9

Structure of compounds of isolated red betel leaf oil. (35) Camphene and (36) Myrcene [13].