Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2022 May 23;22(1):1030.
doi: 10.1186/s12889-022-13316-4.

Spatial differentiation and determinants of COVID-19 in Indonesia

Millary Agung Widiawaty  1   2 , Kuok Choy Lam  3 , Moh Dede  2   4 , Nur Hakimah Asnawi  5
Affiliations

Spatial differentiation and determinants of COVID-19 in Indonesia

Millary Agung Widiawaty et al. BMC Public Health. .

Abstract

Background: The spread of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has increasingly agonized daily lives worldwide. As an archipelagic country, Indonesia has various physical and social environments, which implies that each region has a different response to the pandemic. This study aims to analyze the spatial differentiation of COVID-19 in Indonesia and its interactions with socioenvironmental factors.

Methods: The socioenvironmental factors include seven variables, namely, the internet development index, literacy index, average temperature, urban index, poverty rate, population density (PD) and commuter worker (CW) rate. The multiple linear regression (MLR) and geographically weighted regression (GWR) models are used to analyze the impact of the socioenvironmental factors on COVID-19 cases. COVID-19 data is obtained from the Indonesian Ministry of Health until November 30th 2020.

Results: Results show that the COVID-19 cases in Indonesia are concentrated in Java, which is a densely populated area with high urbanization and industrialization. The other provinces with numerous confirmed COVID-19 cases include South Sulawesi, Bali, and North Sumatra. This study shows that the socioenvironmental factors, simultaneously, influence the increasing of confirmed COVID-19 cases in the 34 provinces of Indonesia. Spatial interactions between the variables in the GWR model are relatively better than those between the variables in the MLR model. The highest spatial tendency is observed outside Java, such as in East Nusa Tenggara, West Nusa Tenggara, and Bali.

Conclusion: Priority for mitigation and outbreak management should be high in areas with high PD, urbanized spaces, and CW.

Keywords: COVID-19; Socioenvironmental factors; Spatial interaction.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declared that they have no competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Research location of 34 provinces as the analysis unit
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Histogram of independent and dependent variables
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Scatter plot for heteroscedasticity observation
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Distribution of confirmed COVID-19 cases until November 2020
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
Distribution of socioenvironmental factors
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
Comparison between confirmed COVID-19 cases, MRL model and GWR model
Fig. 7
Fig. 7
Spatial distribution of a) MRL and b) GWR models
Fig. 8
Fig. 8
Local r-squared distribution based on GWR model
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

References

    1. Ahmadi M, Sharifi A, Dorosti S, Jafarzadeh Ghoushchi S, Ghanbari N. Investigation of effective climatology parameters on COVID-19 outbreak in Iran. Sci Total Environ. 2020;729:138705. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138705. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Susilo A, Rumende C, Pitoyo C, Santoso W, Yulianti M, Herikurniawan H, et al. Coronavirus Disease 2019: Tinjauan Literatur Terkini. Jurnal Penyakit Dalam Indonesia. 2020;7:45. doi: 10.7454/jpdi.v7i1.415. - DOI
    1. Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Cardona-Ospina JA, Gutiérrez-Ocampo E, Villamizar-Peña R, Holguin-Rivera Y, Escalera-Antezana JP, et al. Clinical, laboratory and imaging features of COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2020;34:101623. doi: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101623. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Fajar JK, Ilmawan M, Mamada S, Mutiawati E, Husnah M, Yusuf H, et al. Global prevalence of persistent neuromuscular symptoms and the possible pathomechanisms in COVID-19 recovered individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Narra J. 2021;1(3) Available from: https://narraj.org/main/article/view/48. Cited 30 Jan 2022. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Fahriani M, Ilmawan M, Fajar JK, Maliga HA, Frediansyah A, Masyeni S, et al. Persistence of long COVID symptoms in COVID-19 survivors worldwide and its potential pathogenesis - a systematic review and meta-analysis. Narra J. 2021;1(2) Available from: https://narraj.org/main/article/view/36. Cited 30 Jan 2022. - PMC - PubMed