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Review
. 2022 Jul;29(34):51384-51397.
doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-21041-z. Epub 2022 May 27.

COVID-19 diagnostic methods in developing countries

Md Maniruzzaman #  1 , Md Missile Islam #  2 , Md Hazrat Ali  3 , Nobendu Mukerjee #  4   5 , Swastika Maitra #  6 , Mohammad Amjad Kamal  7   8   9   10 , Arabinda Ghosh  11 , Melvin A Castrosanto  12 , Athanasios Alexiou  13   14 , Ghulam Md Ashraf  15   16 , Priti Tagde  17 , Md Habibur Rahman  18
Affiliations
Review

COVID-19 diagnostic methods in developing countries

Md Maniruzzaman et al. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2022 Jul.

Retraction in

  • Retraction Note: COVID-19 diagnostic methods in developing countries.
    Maniruzzaman M, Islam MM, Ali MH, Mukerjee N, Maitra S, Kamal MA, Ghosh A, Castrosanto MA, Alexiou A, Ashraf GM, Tagde P, Rahman MH. Maniruzzaman M, et al. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2025 May;32(22):13523-13524. doi: 10.1007/s11356-025-36527-9. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2025. PMID: 40381079 Free PMC article. No abstract available.

Abstract

COVID-19 has become one of the few leading causes of death and has evolved into a pandemic that disrupts everyone's routine, and balanced way of life worldwide, and will continue to do so. To bring an end to this pandemic, scientists had put their all effort into discovering the vaccine for SARS-CoV-2 infection. For their dedication, now, we have a handful of COVID-19 vaccines. Worldwide, millions of people are at risk due to the current pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2). Despite the lack of clinically authorized antiviral medications and vaccines for COVID-19, clinical trials of many recognized antiviral agents, their combination, and vaccine development in patients with confirmed COVID-19 are still ongoing. This discovery gave us a chance to get immune to this disease worldwide and end the pandemic. However, the unexpected capacity of mutation of the SARS-CoV-2 virus makes it difficult, like the recent SAS-CoV-2 Omicron variant. Therefore, there is a great necessity to spread the vaccination programs and prevent the spread of this dreadful epidemic by identifying and isolating afflicted patients. Furthermore, several COVID-19 tests are thought to be expensive, time-consuming, and require the use of adequately qualified persons to be carried out efficiently. In addition, we also conversed about how the various COVID-19 testing methods can be implemented for the first time in a developing country and their cost-effectiveness, accuracy, human resources requirements, and laboratory facilities.

Keywords: Antigen; Coronavirus; ELIZA; Immunity; RT-PCR; SARS-CoV-2; SHERLOCK; Viral invasion.

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Conflict of interest statement

Not Applicable.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
a SARS-CoV-2 Virus entry through human ACE-2 receptor. b The mechanism in action and replication of SARS-CoV-2 in the human body
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
The concern of the transmission mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 via droplets
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Patients with COVID-19 infection suffered from systemic and respiratory problems
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
The process of RT–PCR assay
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
Serologic diagnostic test: COVID-19 detection
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
Several types of ELIZA
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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Supplementary concepts