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. 2023 Nov;65(7):1336-1344.
doi: 10.1177/00187208221101301. Epub 2022 May 27.

The effect of an occlusion-induced delay on braking behavior in critical situations: A driving simulator study

Joost C F de Winter  1 , Mehdi Saffarian  1   2 , John W Senders  2
Affiliations

The effect of an occlusion-induced delay on braking behavior in critical situations: A driving simulator study

Joost C F de Winter et al. Hum Factors. 2023 Nov.

Abstract

Objective: To share results of an experiment that used visual occlusion for a new purpose: inducing a waiting time.

Background: Senders was a leading figure in human factors. In his research on the visual demands of driving, he used occlusion techniques.

Methods: In a simulator experiment, we examined how drivers brake for different levels of urgency and different visual conditions. In three blocks (1 = brake lights, 2 = no brake lights, 3 = occlusion), drivers followed a vehicle at 13.4 or 33.4 m distance. At certain moments, the lead vehicle decelerated moderately (1.7 m/s2) or strongly (6.5 m/s2). In the occlusion condition, the screens blanked for 0.4 s (if 6.5 m/s2) or 2.0 s (if 1.7 m/s2) when the lead vehicle started to decelerate. Participants were instructed to brake only after the occlusion ended.

Results: The lack of brake lights caused a delayed response. In the occlusion condition, drivers adapted to the instructed late braking by braking harder. However, adaptation was not always possible: In the most urgent condition, most participants collided with the lead vehicle because the ego-vehicle's deceleration limits were reached. In non-urgent conditions, some drivers braked unnecessarily hard. Furthermore, while waiting until the occlusion cleared, some drivers lightly touched the brake pedal.

Conclusion: This experimental design demonstrates how drivers (sometimes fail to) adjust their braking behavior to the criticality of the situation.

Application: The phenomena of biomechanical readiness and (inappropriate) dosing of the brake pedal may be relevant to safety, traffic flow, and ADAS design.

Keywords: brake control; brake lights; emergency braking; occlusion.

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Figures

Figure 1.
Figure 1.
The participant’s view of the lead vehicle when the bumper-to-bumper distance was approximately 13.4 m, with brake lights on.
Figure 2.
Figure 2.
The lead vehicle speed scheme for large (left) and small (right) deceleration. *The 96 km/h speed during the 60 s constant speed phase varied between trials because the lead vehicle adapted its speed to the participants to achieve a constant headway. The speeds and times are approximate.
Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Brake pedal position in the 13.4 m, 1.7 m/s2 condition, for each of the recorded trials. In the occlusion condition, drivers were asked to brake after the 2 s-long occlusion had cleared.
Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Scatter plot of brake response time and minimum following distance. Minimum following distances below the horizontal line were defined as collisions. Vertical dashed lines are drawn for the occlusion durations (0.4 s for 6.5 m/s2, 2.0 s for 1.7 m/s2).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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