Involvement of Phytochemical-Encapsulated Nanoparticles' Interaction with Cellular Signalling in the Amelioration of Benign and Malignant Brain Tumours

Abstract

Brain tumours have unresolved challenges that include delay prognosis and lower patient survival rate. The increased understanding of the molecular pathways underlying cancer progression has aided in developing various anticancer medications. Brain cancer is the most malignant and invasive type of cancer, with several subtypes. According to the WHO, they are classified as ependymal tumours, chordomas, gangliocytomas, medulloblastomas, oligodendroglial tumours, diffuse astrocytomas, and other astrocytic tumours on the basis of their heterogeneity and molecular mechanisms. The present study is based on the most recent research trends, emphasising glioblastoma cells classified as astrocytoma. Brain cancer treatment is hindered by the failure of drugs to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which is highly impregnableto foreign molecule entry. Moreover, currently available medications frequently fail to cross the BBB, whereas chemotherapy and radiotherapy are too expensive to be afforded by an average incomeperson and have many associated side effects. When compared to our current understanding of molecularly targeted chemotherapeutic agents, it appears that investigating the efficacy of specific phytochemicals in cancer treatment may be beneficial. Plants and their derivatives are game changers because they are efficacious, affordable, environmentally friendly, faster, and less toxic for the treatment of benign and malignant tumours. Over the past few years, nanotechnology has made a steady progress in diagnosing and treating cancers, particularly brain tumours. This article discusses the effects of phytochemicals encapsulated in nanoparticles on molecular targets in brain tumours, along with their limitations and potential challenges.

Keywords: astrocytoma; blood–brain barrier; brain tumour; glioblastoma; nanoparticles; phytochemicals.

Figure 1

Phytochemical-encapsulated nanoparticle-based delivery to cross the BBB with increased absorption and stability to attack molecular targets in order to tackle various brain tumours. Phytochemicals that cannot cross the BBB are encapsulated in nanoparticles, which can improve the drug’s stability, absorption, and bioavailability. These nanoparticles modulate the molecular targets involved in different brain tumours (benign and malignant), as listed here.

Figure 2

(A–C) Flowchart showing the specific effect of various phytochemicals on the different types of benign (meningioma, chondroma, pituitary, schwannoma) and malignant tumours (astrocytoma, glioblastoma, chordoma, neuroblastoma, medulloblastoma, osteochondroma) along with their cellular/molecular targets resulting in a plethora of protective mechanisms against tumours.

Figure 2

(A–C) Flowchart showing the specific effect of various phytochemicals on the different types of benign (meningioma, chondroma, pituitary, schwannoma) and malignant tumours (astrocytoma, glioblastoma, chordoma, neuroblastoma, medulloblastoma, osteochondroma) along with their cellular/molecular targets resulting in a plethora of protective mechanisms against tumours.

Figure 2

(A–C) Flowchart showing the specific effect of various phytochemicals on the different types of benign (meningioma, chondroma, pituitary, schwannoma) and malignant tumours (astrocytoma, glioblastoma, chordoma, neuroblastoma, medulloblastoma, osteochondroma) along with their cellular/molecular targets resulting in a plethora of protective mechanisms against tumours.

Figure 3

Different mechanisms through which phytochemicals-encapsulated nanoparticles cross the BBB; the distinction between the BBB and BBTB is depicted in this diagram. BBB stands for blood–brain barrier; BBTB stands for blood–brain tumour barrier. Above, a cross-section through the brain; middle, a graphical image of the BBB; below, cellular structure. A network of fine blood vessels runs across the brain. These capillaries transport nutrients and oxygen to the brain. The blood–brain barrier is formed when the walls of these blood vessels are combined. It acts as a physiological barrier between the blood circulation system and the brain in all animals, including humans. Its job is to keep the brain safe from disease-causing agents, toxins, and messenger substances in the bloodstream. The BBB thus functions as a highly selective filter, allowing nutrients for the brain to pass in one direction and metabolic wastes to pass in the other. A series of unique transport processes are required for this supply and removal. The gaps between neurons (nerve cells) in the central nervous system are almost filled by glia or endothelial cells and their processes: (GBM) niche and blood-brain barrier (BBB). To a wide range of molecules, the BBB is selective and restrictive. The cancer stem cells are responsible for treatment resistance in glioblastoma, which comprises heterogeneous cell populations.