Graphene Oxide (GO) Materials-Applications and Toxicity on Living Organisms and Environment

Abstract

Graphene-based materials have attracted much attention due to their fascinating properties such as hydrophilicity, high dispersion in aqueous media, robust size, high biocompatibility, and surface functionalization ability due to the presence of functional groups and interactions with biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acid. Modified methods were developed for safe, direct, inexpensive, and eco-friendly synthesis. However, toxicity to the environment and animal health has been reported, raising concerns about their utilization. This review focuses primarily on the synthesis methods of graphene-based materials already developed and the unique properties that make them so interesting for different applications. Different applications are presented and discussed with particular emphasis on biological fields. Furthermore, antimicrobial potential and the factors that affect this activity are reviewed. Finally, questions related to toxicity to the environment and living organisms are revised by highlighting factors that may interfere with it.

Keywords: cytotoxicity; environment; graphene derivatives; health.

Figure 1

Representation of the GO and rGO production process and chemical structure.

Figure 2

(A) Typical coloring of GO and rGO films [19] (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier). (B) Typical colorings of GO (yellow-brown) and rGO (black) solutions [20] (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B. V.).

Figure 3

Antimicrobial mechanisms of GO and rGO involving oxidative and membrane stress that result in DNA, protein, and membrane damage.

Figure 4

Physical factors that, through graphene-derivative microorganism interaction, can affect microbial growth.

Figure 5

Different methods that can be applied for the controlled release of drugs functionalized in graphene and derivative sheets.