Oxidative Stress in Ageing and Chronic Degenerative Pathologies: Molecular Mechanisms Involved in Counteracting Oxidative Stress and Chronic Inflammation

Abstract

Ageing and chronic degenerative pathologies demonstrate the shared characteristics of high bioavailability of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress, chronic/persistent inflammation, glycation, and mitochondrial abnormalities. Excessive ROS production results in nucleic acid and protein destruction, thereby altering the cellular structure and functional outcome. To stabilise increased ROS production and modulate oxidative stress, the human body produces antioxidants, "free radical scavengers", that inhibit or delay cell damage. Reinforcing the antioxidant defence system and/or counteracting the deleterious repercussions of immoderate reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) is critical and may curb the progression of ageing and chronic degenerative syndromes. Various therapeutic methods for ROS and oxidative stress reduction have been developed. However, scientific investigations are required to assess their efficacy. In this review, we summarise the interconnected mechanism of oxidative stress and chronic inflammation that contributes to ageing and chronic degenerative pathologies, including neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), cardiovascular diseases CVD, diabetes mellitus (DM), and chronic kidney disease (CKD). We also highlight potential counteractive measures to combat ageing and chronic degenerative diseases.

Keywords: Alzheimer’s disease; Parkinson’s disease; antioxidants; chronic kidney disease; diabetes; inflammation; oxidative stress; reactive oxygen species (ROS); stem cell therapy.

Figure 1

Schematic representation of oxidative stress, a phenomenon elevated with ageing and degenerative diseases. It involves the accumulation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) in cells and tissues, harmfully modifying deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), proteins and lipids and triggering ageing and chronic degenerative diseases.

Figure 2

Influence of oxidative stress and the interface of ageing and chronic degenerative diseases. The accretion of oxidative stress and the defective antioxidant defence system contributes to elevated membrane alterations, inflammation, cell senescence, and cell apoptosis. This may subsequently contribute to chronic degenerative diseases.