Identification of Genetic Variations in the NAD-Related Pathways for Patients with Major Depressive Disorder: A Case-Control Study in Taiwan

Abstract

Background and Objectives: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is an important coenzyme in various physiological processes, including sirtuins (SIRTs) and kynurenine pathway (KP). Previous studies have shown that lower NAD levels can be indicative of increased risks of cancer and psychiatric disorders. However, there has been no prior study exploring the link between NAD homeostasis and psychiatric disorders from a genetic perspective. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the association of genetic polymorphism in the pathways of NAD biosynthesis with major depressive disorder (MDD). Methods: A total of 317 patients were included in the case group and were compared with sex-matched control group of 1268 participants (1:4 ratio) from Taiwan Biobank (TWB). All subjects in the control group were over 65 years old, which is well past the average age of onset of MDD. Genomic DNA extracted from patients' blood buffy coat was analyzed using the Affymetrix TWB array. Full-model tests were conducted for the analysis of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) in all candidate genes. We focused on genes within the NAD-related candidate pathways, including 15 in KP, 12 in nicotinate metabolism, 7 in SIRTs, and 19 in aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDHs). A total of 508 SNPs were analyzed in this study. After significant SNPs were determined, 5000 genome-wide max(T) permutations were performed in Plink. Finally, we built a predictive model with logistic regression and assessed the interactions of SNPs with the haplotype association tests. Results: We found three SNPs that were significantly associated with MDD in our NAD-related candidate pathways, one within the KP (rs12622574 in ACMSD) and two within the nicotinate metabolism (rs28532698 in BST1 and rs3733593 in CD38). The observed association with MDD was significant in the dominant model of inheritance with marital status, education level, and body mass index (BMI) adjusted as covariates. Lastly, in haplotype analysis, the three associated SNPs consisted of one haploblock in ACMSD, four haploblocks in BST1, and two haploblocks in CD38. Conclusions: This study provides the first evidence that genetic variations involved in NAD homeostasis in the KP and nicotinate metabolism may be associated with the occurrence of MDD.

Keywords: kynurenine pathway (KP); major depressive disorder (MDD); nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD); single nuclear polymorphism (SNPs).

Figure 1

Brief summary of NAD⁺ biosynthesis pathways. NAD⁺ biosynthesis includes the de novo pathway (starts from dietary tryptophan) and nicotinate metabolism (Preiss-Handler pathway in blue and Salvage pathway in green, starts from niacin). Niacin includes nicotinamide, nicotinic acid, and nicotinamide riboside. Dietary tryptophan can be converted to either NAD⁺ or acetyl-CoA via the kynurenine metabolic pathway in mammals. ACMSD is the key enzyme that can moderate NAD⁺ homeostasis. Abbreviations: ACMSD, ACMS decarboxylase; AFMID, N-formylkynurenine formamidase; ALDH8A1, 2-aminomuconic semialdehyde dehydrogenase; CoA, coenzyme A; HAAO, 3-hydroxyanthranilate 3,4-dioxygenase; IDO, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase; KMO, kynurenine 3-monooxygenase; KYNU, kynureninase; NAD⁺, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; NAMPT, nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase; NAPRT, nicotinic acid phosphoribosyltransferase; NMNAT, nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase; NRK, nicotinamide riboside kinase; QPRT, quinolinate phosphoribosyl transferase; TCA cycle, tricarboxylic acid cycle; TDO, tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase.

Figure 2

Haplotype Analyses of ACMSD, BST1, and CD38.

Figure 2

Haplotype Analyses of ACMSD, BST1, and CD38.