Nanoparticles in the diagnosis and treatment of vascular aging and related diseases

Abstract

Aging-induced alternations of vasculature structures, phenotypes, and functions are key in the occurrence and development of vascular aging-related diseases. Multiple molecular and cellular events, such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, vascular inflammation, cellular senescence, and epigenetic alterations are highly associated with vascular aging physiopathology. Advances in nanoparticles and nanotechnology, which can realize sensitive diagnostic modalities, efficient medical treatment, and better prognosis as well as less adverse effects on non-target tissues, provide an amazing window in the field of vascular aging and related diseases. Throughout this review, we presented current knowledge on classification of nanoparticles and the relationship between vascular aging and related diseases. Importantly, we comprehensively summarized the potential of nanoparticles-based diagnostic and therapeutic techniques in vascular aging and related diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, as well as chronic kidney diseases, and discussed the advantages and limitations of their clinical applications.

Fig. 1

Timeline of the discovery and research history of nanoparticles. Key discoveries are highlighted. Research on nanoparticles began in the 1960s. Over the last two decades, an increasing number of scientists have devoted themselves to the study of nanoparticles, yielding impressive results in the biomedical field. AuNPs gold nanoparticles, IONs iron oxide nanoparticles, NPs nanoparticles, SLNs solid lipid nanoparticles, CNTs carbon nanotubes, and QDs quantum dots

Fig. 2

Schematic illustration of various inorganic-based nanoparticles, carbon-based nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles, and polymeric nanoparticles. QD quantum dot, AuNP gold nanoparticle, ION iron oxide nanoparticle, MSN mesoporous silica nanoparticle, CQD carbon quantum dot

Fig. 3

Schematic illustration of biomimetic nanoparticles. It mainly includes cell-membrane-coated nanoparticles, nanoparticles with targeting ligands, and natural protein-based biomimetic nanoparticles. rHDL reconstituted high-density lipoprotein

Fig. 4

Mechanisms of vascular aging. A broad range of molecular and cellular events, including oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, vascular inflammation, cellular senescence, epigenetic alterations, genomic instability, impaired resistance to molecular stressors, deregulated nutrient sensing, loss of protein homeostasis, and stem cell dysfunction are involved in the pathology of vascular aging. This figure was created with the aid of Servier Medical Art (https://smart.servier.com/). ROS reactive oxygen species, RNS reactive nitrogen species, SIRT1 sirtuin 1, NO nitric oxide, NF-κB nuclear factor-kappaB, IL-6 interleukin-6, mtDNA mitochondrial DNA, iNOS inducible nitric oxide synthase, MCP-1 monocyte chemotactic protein-1, TNF-α tumor necrosis factor alpha, EC endothelial cell, VSMC vascular smooth muscle cell, mTOR mechanistic/mammalian target of rapamycin, AMPK adenosine monophosphate protein kinase, miRNA microRNA, lncRNA long non-coding RNA, UPS ubiquitin-proteasome system, LAS lysosome-autophagy system, Nrf2 nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2

Fig. 5

Historical timeline of nanoparticles used in the diagnosis of vascular aging-related diseases. This timeline scheme was made using the Web of Science database. Key discoveries are highlighted. USPIO ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide particles, MR magnetic resonance, MPI magnetic particle imaging, SPIONs superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, NPs nanoparticles, VCAM-1 vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, CT computed tomography, PET positron emission tomography, Myo myoglobin, CKD chronic kidney disease, AuNPs gold nanoparticles, cTnI cardiac troponin I, CK-MB creatine kinase-muscle/brain test, LFA lateral flow assay, SERS surface-enhanced Raman scattering, M-HFn magnetoferritin nanoparticles, ICH intracerebral hemorrhage, HSA human serum albumin, CLIA chemiluminescent immunoassay, ESM exceptionally small-sized superparamagnetic magnetite

Fig. 6

Historical timeline of nanoparticles-based therapies in vascular aging-related diseases. This timeline scheme was made using the Web of Science database. Key discoveries are highlighted. NPs nanoparticles, VSMCs vascular smooth muscle cells, AuNPs gold nanoparticles, rHDL reconstituted high-density lipoprotein, AS atherosclerosis, AgNPs silver nanoparticles, HDL high-density lipoprotein, LNPs lipid nanoparticles, CeO₂ NPs cerium oxide nanoparticles, MSCs mesenchymal stem cells, SPIONs superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, ECs endothelial cells, SAH subarachnoid hemorrhage, I/R ischemia reperfusion, MM/RAPNPs macrophage membrane coating on the surface of rapamycin-loaded poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) copolymer nanoparticles

Fig. 7

Advantages, limitations, and future directions of nanomedicine