Emerging Bioanalytical Devices and Platforms for Rapid Detection of Pathogens in Environmental Samples

Abstract

The development of robust bioanalytical devices and biosensors for infectious pathogens is progressing well with the advent of new materials, concepts, and technology. The progress is also stepping towards developing high throughput screening technologies that can quickly identify, differentiate, and determine the concentration of harmful pathogens, facilitating the decision-making process for their elimination and therapeutic interventions in large-scale operations. Recently, much effort has been focused on upgrading these analytical devices to an intelligent technological platform by integrating them with modern communication systems, such as the internet of things (IoT) and machine learning (ML), to expand their application horizon. This review outlines the recent development and applications of bioanalytical devices and biosensors to detect pathogenic microbes in environmental samples. First, the nature of the recent outbreaks of pathogenic microbes such as foodborne, waterborne, and airborne pathogens and microbial toxins are discussed to understand the severity of the problems. Next, the discussion focuses on the detection systems chronologically, starting with the conventional methods, advanced techniques, and emerging technologies, such as biosensors and other portable devices and detection platforms for pathogens. Finally, the progress on multiplex assays, wearable devices, and integration of smartphone technologies to facilitate pathogen detection systems for wider applications are highlighted.

Keywords: bioanalytical devices; biosensors; pathogens; responsive materials; smart materials.

Figure 3

MIP-based pathogen detection system. (i) Fabrication schemes and detection of E. coli following ECL principles. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [134]. Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society. (ii) (a) bacteria template preparation and fabrication, (b) POTs-modified imprinted PDMS film, and (c) interaction of bacteria with the interface and FRET surface. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [137]. Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society. (iii) Outline of SARS-CoV-2 and plasmonic optical fibers (POF) sensors in different matrices [143].

Figure 4

Hydrogel-based pathogen detection system. (i) Biosensor system using DNA hydrogels: (a) photograph of the kit, (b) bead—packed microchannel, (c) microscopic image of bead—packed microchannel, (d) sample 1-Dengue and MERS, and (e) sample 2–Ebola and Zika [148]. (ii) Selective detection system of pathogenic and nonpathogenic bacteria-selective discrimination of E. coli K12 and EHEC. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [149]. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society. (iii) Aptamer-based hydrogel barcodes to capture and detect bacteria. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [150]. Copyright 2018 Elsevier. (iv) Hydrogel assisted detection system of elastase and α-glucosidase: (a) chemical structures of substrates and matrices, (b) the fluorescence output of the shape-encoded letters under UV light. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [151]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (v) Selective detection of bacteria using chitosan hydrogel-fabrication and investigation of the reaction on PDMS chip. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [152]. Copyright 2018 John Wiley and Sons.

Figure 5

Responsive polymer-based pathogen detection system. (i) (a) Fabrication steps of the immunosensor using conductive polymers such as PEDOT:PSS, and (b) immobilization and detection strategies of E. coli using the nanoarray setup. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [167]. Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society. (ii) PDMS dendrimer-aptamer-RCA detection system in which PAMAM dendrimers are used to decorate the microchannels that enhances the E. coli detection 50 times. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [168]. Copyright 2017 Elsevier.

Figure 6

Emerging detection approach for pathogen. (i) (a) Colorimetric detection of H. pylori using paper-based microfluidic device, (b,c) selectivity and sensitivity of the developed device. Reprinted with permission Ref. [187]. Copyright 2019 John Wiley and Sons. (ii) Vertical flow immunoassay (VFI) system to detect B. pseudomallei: (a) VFI platform and layers, (b) microarray design, and (c) operation workflow. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [189]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier. (iii) Impedimetric paper-based biosensor for bacteria: (a) surface modification of electrode surface and detection principle, and (b) functionalized screen-printed probe for bacteria detection. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [197]. Copyright 2018 Elsevier. (iv) Smartphone-based biosensor for S. aureus detection: (a) construction of sealed chamber and the bacterial detection cassette, and (b) detection steps of pathogen and quantification using smartphone. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [207]. Copyright 2018 Elsevier. (v) Polydiacetylene-based paper chip and colorimetric detection of pH1N1 virus: (a) fabrication and preparation of paper-chip, and (b) colorimetric detection of pH1N1 virus. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [208]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier.

Figure 1

Schematic diagram for conventional and advanced laboratory-based techniques used for monitoring microbial pathogens in environmental samples. ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; IMA: immunomagnetic assay; PCR: polymerase chain reaction; FISH: fluorescent in-situ hybridization; LAMP: loop-mediated isothermal amplification; NGS: next generation sequencing.

Figure 2

Metallic nanomaterials-based pathogen detection system: (i) E. coli O157:H7 is detected by tuning the optical property of AuNPs by using tyramine as a crosslinking agent in microfluidic platform. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [97]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier. (ii) Colorimetric detection of bacteria explores the aggregation and inhibition of aggregation of MPBA-AgNPs. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [98]. Copyright 2018 Elsevier. (iii) Aggregation of AuNPs is instructed by bacteria to undergo click chemistry and triggered in the presence of Cu⁺. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [99]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society. (iv) Schematic representation of the colorimetric assay of S. enteritidis based on positively charged AuNPs using lateral flow technology, (a) test strip structure, (b) interaction of (+) AuNPs- (−) S. enteritidis mechanism, (c) colorimetric and quantitative detection of S. enteritidis [100].