Effects of infant age and sex, and maternal parity on the interaction of lactation with infant feeding development in chimpanzees

Abstract

The interaction between infant feeding and maternal lactational physiology influences female inter-birth intervals and mediates maternal reproductive trade-offs. We investigated variation in feeding development in 72 immature wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda, and made inferences about maternal lactation over the course of infancy. We compared the percentage (%) of time that mothers nursed infants as a function of infant age and assessed how hourly rates and bout durations of nursing and foraging varied in association with differences in offspring age, sex, and maternal parity. Nursing % times, rates and durations were highest for infants ≤ 6 months old but did not change significantly from 6 months to 5 years old. Nursing continued at a decreasing rate for some 5- to 7-year-olds. Infants ≤ 6 months old foraged little. Foraging rates did not change after 1 year old, but foraging durations and the % time devoted to foraging increased with age. Independent foraging probably became a dietary requirement for infants at 1 year old, when their energy needs may have surpassed the available milk energy. Infants spent as much time foraging by the time they were 4 to 5 years old as adults did. No sex effect on infant nursing or foraging was apparent, but infants of primiparous females had higher foraging rates and spent more time foraging than the infants of multiparous females did. Although no data on milk composition were collected, these findings are consistent with a working hypothesis that like other hominoids, chimpanzee mothers maintained a fixed level of lactation effort over several years as infants increasingly supplemented their growing energy, micronutrient and hydration needs via independent foraging. Plateauing lactation may be a more widespread adaptation that allows hominoid infants time to attain the physiology and skills necessary for independent feeding, while also providing them with a steady dietary base on which they could rely consistently through infancy, and enabling mothers to maintain a fixed, predictable level of lactation effort.

Fig 1. Percentage of focal observation time that immature chimpanzees spent nursing at different ages.

Box plots show median values (solid horizontal lines), 25^th and 75^th percentile values (box boundaries), highest and lowest values (whiskers) and outliers (circles).

Fig 2. Average nursing rates of immature chimpanzees at different ages.

Box plots show median values (solid horizontal lines), 25^th and 75^th percentile values (box boundaries), highest and lowest values (whiskers) and outliers (circles).

Fig 3. Average nursing bout durations of immature chimpanzees at different ages.

Box plots show median values (solid horizontal lines), 25^th and 75^th percentile values (box boundaries), highest and lowest values (whiskers) and outliers (circles).

Fig 4. Percentage of focal observation time that immature chimpanzees spent foraging at different ages.

Box plots show median values (solid horizontal lines), 25th and 75th percentile values (box boundaries), highest and lowest values (whiskers) and outliers (circles).

Fig 5. Average foraging rates of immature chimpanzees at different ages.

Box plots show median values (solid horizontal lines), 25th and 75th percentile values (box boundaries), highest and lowest values (whiskers) and extremes (asterisks).

Fig 6. Average foraging bout durations of immature chimpanzees at different ages.

Box plots show median values (solid horizontal lines), 25th and 75th percentile values (box boundaries), highest and lowest values (whiskers), outliers (circles), and extremes (asterisks).

Fig 7. Percentage of focal observation time spent foraging by infants between 6 months and 5 years old of primiparous versus multiparous mothers.

Box plots show median values (solid horizontal lines), 25th and 75th percentile values (box boundaries), highest and lowest values (whiskers) and outliers (circles).