Glycopolymer-Based Materials: Synthesis, Properties, and Biosensing Applications

Abstract

Glycopolymer materials have emerged as a significant biopolymer class that has piqued the scientific community's attention due to their potential applications. Recently, they have been found to be a unique synthetic biomaterial; glycopolymer materials have also been used for various applications, including direct therapeutic methods, medical adhesives, drug/gene delivery systems, and biosensor applications. Therefore, for the next stage of biomaterial research, it is essential to understand current breakthroughs in glycopolymer-based materials research. This review discusses the most widely utilized synthetic methodologies for glycopolymer-based materials, their properties based on structure-function interactions, and the significance of these materials in biosensing applications, among other topics. When creating glycopolymer materials, contemporary polymerization methods allow precise control over molecular weight, molecular weight distribution, chemical activity, and polymer architecture. This review concludes with a discussion of the challenges and complexities of glycopolymer-based biosensors, in addition to their potential applications in the future.

Keywords: Biosensor; Detection; Glycopolymer; Hydrogel; SARS-CoV-2; Sensing.

Fig. 1

Schematic structures of a sugar-based polymeric delivery systems ( reproduced with permission from Ref. [16]) and b glycopolymers with linear, dendrimer, and star-shaped polymer structures (reproduced with permission from Ref. [22])

Fig. 2

a Anionic and cationic polymerization strategies for synthesizing block-type glycopolymers [33]. b Protective groups are frequently added to saccharides to prevent side reactions and/or tailor their solubility [33]

Fig. 3

Styrene derivatives with a sugar moiety that has been protected by acetal ( reproduced with permission from Ref. [40])

Fig. 4

Synthesis of glycopolymer-type amphiphilic macromonomers and their application to prepare maltose-decorated polymer particles by dispersion polymerization [44]

Fig. 5

The three primary radical polymerization processes [49]

Fig. 6

Atom transfer radical polymerization method for producing DDrLs [58]

Fig. 7

Ring-opening metathesis polymerization approach for the synthesis of a d-mannose-carrying polymer [76], and b various glycopolymers with galactosamine derivatives (DSS is the degree of sugar substitution) [77]

Fig. 8

Self-assembly structures based on the glycopolymers a molecular packing parameter, and b amphiphilicity formed nanoparticles [22]

Fig. 9

Schematic representation of the three major biosensor approaches a an optical biosensor, b a piezoelectric biosensor, and c an electrochemical biosensor [121]. d Schematic shows the development of a biosensor interface and various electrochemical techniques used to detect specific biochemical interactions [120]

Fig. 10

a Synthetic scheme for p(NIPAm-co-GEMA) microgels. b A schematic of the SPR spectrometer set up on the 50 nm Au sensor surface for the p(NIPAm-co-GEMA) microgel-based sensing mechanism for glucose detection [125]

Fig. 11

a Au@PGlyco SERS spectra [126]. b orientation and immobilization of O-cyanate chain-end functionalized sialyllactose-containing glycopolymers for microarray and SPR applications via isourea bond formation [127]

Fig. 12

a A schematic representation of developing a functional phosphoglycan-sensitized platform. b CVs for each modification step at 50 mV s⁻¹ scan rate with the bare electrode inset. c Nyquist plot with a frequency range of 50 kHz to 0.01 Hz, and an amplitude of 10 mV (the bare electrode and the equivalent Randles circuit are in the inset). The redox probe is 5 mM [Fe (CN)₆]^3−/4−/PBS 1X, pH 7.4 [129]

Fig. 13

Design concept for glyco-lateral flow devices; a a virus lateral flow assay using glycan capture units; b a glyconanoparticle synthesis procedure [130]

Fig. 14

PZT disc fabrication process: a 100-m-thick silver-coated piezo plate; b plate after incubation in 98% nitric acid solution; c gold (50 nm)-coated plate; and d 4-mm disc cut with chopped carbide grade from the aminated gold-coated plate. e Designed a board to measure the resonance frequency shift of PZT discs. f There is an increase in lateral stress within the polymer receptor layer with sialyloligosaccharide groups following virus particle binding [131]. g Photographs and schematics of the constructed sweat-based glucose biosensor [132]

Fig. 15

a Synthesis of the glycopolymer and the preparation of the polymer-immobilized gold nanoparticles [134]. b A plasmonic field-effect transistor (FET) for sensing lectins is coated with Au NP-glycopolymer conjugates. c The construction of the lectin-binding plasmon FET involved microfabrication of the device followed by surface functionalization with synthetic glycopolymers [135]

Fig. 16

Schematic representation of the a specific interactions of bacteria to glycopolymers immobilized on the QCM-D surface [142] and b GlyB interface and the sensing mechanism [145]