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Review
. 2022 Dec;149(14):1822-1828.
doi: 10.1017/S0031182022001172. Epub 2022 Aug 22.

Effects of multiple stressors in fish: how parasites and contaminants interact

Bernd Sures  1 , Milen Nachev  1
Affiliations
Review

Effects of multiple stressors in fish: how parasites and contaminants interact

Bernd Sures et al. Parasitology. 2022 Dec.

Abstract

Interest in local environmental conditions and the occurrence and behaviour of parasites has increased over the last 3 decades, leading to the discipline of Environmental Parasitology. The aim of this discipline is to investigate how anthropogenically altered environmental factors influence the occurrence of parasites and how the combined effects of pollutants and parasites affect the health of their hosts. Accordingly, in this paper, we provide an overview of the direct and indirect effects of pollutants on the occurrence and distribution of fish parasites. However, based on current knowledge, it is difficult to draw general conclusions about these interdependencies, as the effects of pollutants on free-living (larval) parasite stages, as well as their effects on ectoparasites, depend on the pollutant–host–parasite combination as well as on other environmental factors that can modulate the harmful effects of pollutants. Furthermore, the question of the combined effects of the simultaneous occurrence of parasites and pollutants on the physiology and health of the fish hosts is of interest. For this purpose, we differentiate between the dominance effects of individual stressors over other, additive or synergistically reinforcing effects as well as combined antagonistic effects. For the latter, there are only very few studies, most of which were also carried out on invertebrates, so that this field of research presents itself as very promising for future investigations.

Keywords: Aquatic parasites; Environmental Parasitology; pollution.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare there are no conflicts of interest.

Figures

None
Graphical abstract
Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.
Changes in pollution levels of aquatic habitats can directly or indirectly affect the structure and composition of fish parasite communities. The direct mode of action includes mainly effects on adult ectoparasites or larval stages that are in immediate contact with the environment. Adverse effects of pollutants lead to lower transmission efficiency of parasites, which in turn affects the structure and dynamics of parasite populations.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2.
Interactive effects of pollutants and parasites on different organization levels of fish. Parasites are an additional stressor for fish that might superimpose the effects of environmental factors, which can lead to various forms of stressor interaction. In addition to frequently observed additive and synergistic negative effects on fish, there are also examples of antagonistic effects where parasite infections appear to be beneficial to infected individuals. Also, dominance effects might occur where 1 stressor outweigh effects of the other stressor. Effects of these stressors often manifest on molecular and subcellular levels but their effects might be seen on the population or even community level.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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