NMR spectroscopy spotlighting immunogenicity induced by COVID-19 vaccination to mitigate future health concerns

Abstract

In this review, the disease and immunogenicity affected by COVID-19 vaccination at the metabolic level are described considering the use of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy for the analysis of different biological samples. Consistently, we explain how different biomarkers can be examined in the saliva, blood plasma/serum, bronchoalveolar-lavage fluid (BALF), semen, feces, urine, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and breast milk. For example, the proposed approach for the given samples can allow one to detect molecular biomarkers that can be relevant to disease and/or vaccine interference in a system metabolome. The analysis of the given biomaterials by NMR often produces complex chemical data which can be elucidated by multivariate statistical tools, such as PCA and PLS-DA/OPLS-DA methods. Moreover, this approach may aid to improve strategies that can be helpful in disease control and treatment management in the future.

Keywords: COVID-19; Chemometrics; Immunogenicity; Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy; Vaccination.

Graphical abstract

Fig. 1

Basic structure of SARS-CoV-2.

Fig. 2

A generalized mechanistic overview of candidate vaccines: (A) represents inactivated vaccines that uses whole virion of SARS-coV-2 as immunogen (S-protein), directly contacting with ribosomal units for protein (HA) translation; (B) shows m-RNA based vaccines, encapsulated in lipid nanoparticle, and after injecting, the lipid-nanoparticle remains outside of the plasma membrane of human cell and m-RNA penetrates the plasma membrane to cytoplasm and then to ribosomal subunits for protein translation (antigen); (C) is a viral vector vaccine or vector-based vaccine different from A and B, and is a DNA based vaccine that used adeno-virus as vector and post injection, the DNA penetrates plasma membrane following contact with cell nucleus, however, without integrating with DNA, converting to m-RNA via enzyme (RNA polymerase), and transported to cytoplasm for protein synthesis. The immune response generated by vaccines: MHC genes expressed to produce surface antigens – e.g., MHC-II expresses on antigen presenting cells to activate T_H, and linked through TCRs and cluster of differentiation-4 (CD4) T cells will be activated and release cytokines further activate B-cells to proliferate and differentiate to form plasma cells that result antibodies, directing against S-proteins and start neutralization. Similarly, MHC-I protein present endogenous antigens after neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 the cell will destroy. Infected cell by activating Tc cells via CD8 cells create pores in the infected cells via proteins called “perforins.” FAO represents fatty acid oxidation pathway; it aids modulating macrophage's inflammatory function, and crucially controls the innate and adaptive immune systems. AA reveals amino acid pathway; a signaling pathway triggering inflammatory responses via T_H cell by secreting cytokines. Pentose pathway; signaling pathway support LPS-induced cytokines secretion which then help in B-cell activation and proliferation.