Effects of Plyometric Jump Training on Measures of Physical Fitness and Sport-Specific Performance of Water Sports Athletes: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis

Abstract

Background: A growing body of literature is available regarding the effects of plyometric jump training (PJT) on measures of physical fitness (PF) and sport-specific performance (SSP) in-water sports athletes (WSA, i.e. those competing in sports that are practiced on [e.g. rowing] or in [e.g. swimming; water polo] water). Indeed, incoherent findings have been observed across individual studies making it difficult to provide the scientific community and coaches with consistent evidence. As such, a comprehensive systematic literature search should be conducted to clarify the existent evidence, identify the major gaps in the literature, and offer recommendations for future studies.

Aim: To examine the effects of PJT compared with active/specific-active controls on the PF (one-repetition maximum back squat strength, squat jump height, countermovement jump height, horizontal jump distance, body mass, fat mass, thigh girth) and SSP (in-water vertical jump, in-water agility, time trial) outcomes in WSA, through a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized and non-randomized controlled studies.

Methods: The electronic databases PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched up to January 2022. According to the PICOS approach, the eligibility criteria were: (population) healthy WSA; (intervention) PJT interventions involving unilateral and/or bilateral jumps, and a minimal duration of ≥ 3 weeks; (comparator) active (i.e. standard sports training) or specific-active (i.e. alternative training intervention) control group(s); (outcome) at least one measure of PF (e.g. jump height) and/or SSP (e.g. time trial) before and after training; and (study design) multi-groups randomized and non-randomized controlled trials. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. The DerSimonian and Laird random-effects model was used to compute the meta-analyses, reporting effect sizes (ES, i.e. Hedges' g) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). Statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Certainty or confidence in the body of evidence for each outcome was assessed using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE), considering its five dimensions: risk of bias in studies, indirectness, inconsistency, imprecision, and risk of publication bias.

Results: A total of 11,028 studies were identified with 26 considered eligible for inclusion. The median PEDro score across the included studies was 5.5 (moderate-to-high methodological quality). The included studies involved a total of 618 WSA of both sexes (330 participants in the intervention groups [31 groups] and 288 participants in the control groups [26 groups]), aged between 10 and 26 years, and from different sports disciplines such as swimming, triathlon, rowing, artistic swimming, and water polo. The duration of the training programmes in the intervention and control groups ranged from 4 to 36 weeks. The results of the meta-analysis indicated no effects of PJT compared to control conditions (including specific-active controls) for in-water vertical jump or agility (ES = - 0.15 to 0.03; p = 0.477 to 0.899), or for body mass, fat mass, and thigh girth (ES = 0.06 to 0.15; p = 0.452 to 0.841). In terms of measures of PF, moderate-to-large effects were noted in favour of the PJT groups compared to the control groups (including specific-active control groups) for one-repetition maximum back squat strength, horizontal jump distance, squat jump height, and countermovement jump height (ES = 0.67 to 1.47; p = 0.041 to < 0.001), in addition to a small effect noted in favour of the PJT for SSP time-trial speed (ES = 0.42; p = 0.005). Certainty of evidence across the included studies varied from very low-to-moderate.

Conclusions: PJT is more effective to improve measures of PF and SSP in WSA compared to control conditions involving traditional sport-specific training as well as alternative training interventions (e.g. resistance training). It is worth noting that the present findings are derived from 26 studies of moderate-to-high methodological quality, low-to-moderate impact of heterogeneity, and very low-to-moderate certainty of evidence based on GRADE. Trial registration The protocol for this systematic review with meta-analysis was published in the Open Science platform (OSF) on January 23, 2022, under the registration doi https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/NWHS3 (internet archive link: https://archive.org/details/osf-registrations-nwhs3-v1 ).

Keywords: Human physical conditioning; Movement; Muscle strength; Musculoskeletal and neural physiological phenomena; Plyometric exercise; Resistance training.

Fig. 1

Flow diagram of the search process

Fig. 2

Forest plot for changes regarding in-water vertical jump performance (e.g. cm) in participants after plyometric jump training (PJT) compared to controls. Forest plot values are shown effect sizes (Hedges’ g) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Black squares: individual studies. Its size represents their relative weights. White rhomboid: summary value. Note: Letters (e.g. DG) at the end of a study (e.g. Martin et al. [134] DG) denotes that different experimental groups were included

Fig. 3

Forest plot for changes regarding in-water agility (e.g. agility time) in participants after plyometric jump training (PJT) compared to controls. Forest plot values are shown effect sizes (Hedges’ g) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Black squares: individual studies. Its size represents their relative weights. White rhomboid: summary value. Note: Letters (e.g. DG) at the end of a study (e.g. Martin et al. [134] DG) denotes that different experimental groups were included

Fig. 4

Forest plot for changes regarding in-water time trial performance (e.g. 25-m swimming speed) in participants after plyometric jump training (PJT) compared to controls. Forest plot values are shown effect sizes (Hedges’ g) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Black squares: individual studies. Its size represents their relative weights. White rhomboid: summary value. Note: Letters (e.g. DG) at the end of a study (e.g. Martin et al. [134] DG) denotes that different experimental groups were included

Fig. 5

Forest plot for changes in maximal strength performance (i.e. squat one repetition maximum, as kg), in participants after plyometric jump training (PJT) compared to controls. Forest plot values are shown effect sizes (Hedges’ g) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Black squares: individual studies. Its size represents their relative weights. White rhomboid: summary value. Note: Letters (e.g. DG) at the end of a study (e.g. Martin et al. [134] DG) denotes that different experimental groups were included

Fig. 6

Forest plot for changes in horizontal jump displacement performance (e.g. cm), in participants after plyometric jump training (PJT) compared to controls. Forest plot values are shown effect sizes (Hedges’ g) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Black squares: individual studies. Its size represents their relative weights. White rhomboid: summary value

Fig. 7

Forest plot for changes in squat jump performance (e.g. vertical height), in participants after plyometric jump training (PJT) compared to controls. Forest plot values are shown effect sizes (Hedges’ g) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Black squares: individual studies. Its size represents their relative weights. White rhomboid: summary value

Fig. 8

Forest plot for changes in countermovement jump performance (e.g. vertical height), in participants after plyometric jump training (PJT) compared to controls. Forest plot values are shown effect sizes (Hedges’ g) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Black squares: individual studies. Its size represents their relative weights. White rhomboid: summary value. Note: Letters (e.g. DG) at the end of a study (e.g. Martin et al. [134] DG) denotes that different experimental groups were included

Fig. 9

Forest plot for changes in body mass (i.e. kg), in participants after plyometric jump training (PJT) compared to controls. Forest plot values are shown effect sizes (Hedges’ g) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Black squares: individual studies. Its size represents their relative weights. White rhomboid: summary value