In COVID-19 Health Messaging, Loss Framing Increases Anxiety with Little-to-No Concomitant Benefits: Experimental Evidence from 84 Countries

Charles A Dorison¹, Jennifer S Lerner^{2

3}, Blake H Heller^{2

4}, Alexander J Rothman⁵, Ichiro I Kawachi⁶, Ke Wang², Vaughan W Rees⁶, Brian P Gill⁷, Nancy Gibbs², Charles R Ebersole⁸, Zahir Vally^{9

10}, Zuzanna Tajchman¹¹, Andras N Zsido¹², Mija Zrimsek¹³, Zhang Chen¹⁴, Ignazio Ziano¹⁵, Zoi Gialitaki¹⁶, Chris D Ceary¹⁷, Yijun Lin¹⁸, Yoshihiko Kunisato¹⁹, Yuki Yamada²⁰, Qinyu Xiao²¹, Xiaoming Jiang²², Xinkai Du²³, Elvin Yao²⁴, John Paul Wilson²⁵, Wilson Cyrus-Lai²⁶, William Jimenez-Leal²⁷, Wilbert Law²⁸, W Matthew Collins²⁹, Karley L Richard¹⁷, Marek Vranka³⁰, Vladislav Ankushev³¹, Vidar Schei³², Valerija Križanić³³, Veselina Hristova Kadreva³⁴, Vera Cubela Adoric³⁵, Ulrich S Tran³⁶, Siu Kit Yeung³⁷, Widad Hassan³⁸, Ralph Houston³⁹, Tiago J S Lima⁴⁰, Thomas Ostermann⁴¹, Thomas Frizzo⁴², Therese E Sverdrup³², Thea House^{43

44}, Tripat Gill⁴⁵, Maksim Fedotov⁴⁶, Tamar Paltrow⁴⁷, Teodor Jernsäther⁴⁸, Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm⁴⁹, Thomas J Hostler⁵⁰, Tatsunori Ishii⁵¹, Barnabas Szaszi⁵², Sylwia Adamus⁵³, Lilian Suter⁵⁴, Sumaiya Habib⁵⁵, Anna Studzinska⁵⁶, Dragana Stojanovska⁵⁷, Steve M J Janssen⁵⁸, Stefan Stieger⁵⁹, Stefan E Schulenberg⁶⁰, Srinivasan Tatachari⁶¹, Soufian Azouaghe^{62

63}, Piotr Sorokowski⁶⁴, Agnieszka Sorokowska⁶⁴, Xin Song¹¹, Savannah C Lewis⁶⁵, Sladjana Sinkolova⁵⁷, Dmitry Grigoryev⁶⁶, Shira Meir Drexler⁶⁷, Shimrit Daches⁶⁸, Shawn N Geniole⁶⁹, Selena Vračar⁷⁰, Sébastien Massoni⁴², Saša Zorjan⁷¹, Eylül Sarıoğuz⁷², Sara Morales Izquierdo⁷³, Sara G Alves⁷⁴, Sara Pöntinen⁷⁵, Sara Álvarez Solas⁷⁶, Santiago Ordoñez-Riaño⁷⁷, Sanja Batić Očovaj⁷⁸, Sandersan Onie^{79

80

81}, Samuel Lins⁷⁴, Sami Çoksan⁸², Asli Sacakli⁸³, Susana Ruiz-Fernández⁸⁴, Sandra J Geiger⁸⁵, Saeideh FatahModares⁸⁶, Radoslaw B Walczak⁸⁷, Ruben Betlehem³³, Roosevelt Vilar⁸⁸, Rodrigo Cárcamo⁸⁹, Robert M Ross⁹⁰, Randy McCarthy⁹¹, Tonia Ballantyne¹⁷, Erin C Westgate¹⁸, Reza Afhami⁹², Dongning Ren⁹³, Renan P Monteiro⁹⁴, Ulf-Dietrich Reips⁹⁵, Niv Reggev⁹⁶, Robert J Calin-Jageman⁹⁷, Razieh Pourafshari⁹⁸, Raquel Oliveira^{99

100}, Mina Nedelcheva-Datsova¹⁰¹, Rima-Maria Rahal⁹³, Rafael R Ribeiro¹⁰², Theda Radtke¹⁰³, Rachel Searston¹⁰⁴, Redeate Habte¹⁰⁵, Przemysław Zdybek⁸⁷, Sau-Chin Chen¹⁰⁶, Princess Lovella G Maturan¹⁰⁷, Jennifer T Perillo¹⁰⁸, Peder Mortvedt Isager¹⁰⁹, Pavol Kačmár¹¹⁰, Paulo Manuel Macapagal^{111

112}, Paulina Szwed¹¹³, Paul H P Hanel¹¹⁴, Paul A G Forbes¹¹⁵, Patrícia Arriaga¹⁰², Bastien Paris⁶³, Konstantinos Papachristopoulos^{116

117}, Pablo Sebastián Correa¹¹⁸, Ondřej Kácha¹¹⁹, Márcia Bernardo¹²⁰, Olatz Campos¹²¹, Olalla Niño Bravo¹²², Oscar J Galindo-Caballero^{27

123}, Chisom Esther Ogbonnaya¹²⁴, Olga Bialobrzeska¹²⁵, Natalia Kiselnikova¹²⁶, Nicolle Simonovic¹²⁷, Noga Cohen¹²⁸, Nora L Nock¹²⁹, Niklas Johannes¹³⁰, Nihan Albayrak-Aydemir¹³¹, Nicolas Say¹³², Nathan Torunsky¹¹, Natalia Van Doren¹³³, Naoyuki Sunami¹³⁴, Nikolay R Rachev¹⁰¹, Nadyanna M Majeed¹³⁵, Nadya-Daniela Schmidt¹³⁶, Khaoula Nadif¹³⁷, Nadia S Corral-Frías¹³⁸, Nihal Ouherrou¹³⁹, Myrto Pantazi¹³⁰, Marc Y Lucas¹⁴⁰, Martin R Vasilev¹⁴¹, María Victoria Ortiz^{142

143}, Muhammad Mussaffa Butt¹⁴⁴, Muhib Kabir¹⁴⁵, Rafał Muda¹⁴⁶, Maria Del Carmen Mc Tejada Rivera¹⁴⁷, Miroslav Sirota¹⁴⁸, Martin Seehuus^{149

150}, Michal Parzuchowski¹⁵¹, Mónica Toro¹⁵², Monika Hricova¹¹⁰, Mónica Alarcón Maldonado¹⁵³, Magdalena Marszalek¹²⁵, Maria Karekla¹⁵⁴, Giovanna Mioni¹⁵⁵, Minke Jasmijn Bosma¹⁵⁶, Minja Westerlund⁷⁵, Milica Vdovic¹⁵⁷, Michal Bialek⁶⁴, Miguel A Silan¹⁵⁸, Michele Anne⁵⁸, Michal Misiak^{159

160}, Maurice Grinberg¹⁶¹, Mariagrazia Capizzi¹⁶², Mauricio F Espinoza Barría¹⁶³, Merve A Kurfali¹⁶⁴, Michael C Mensink¹⁶⁵, Mikayel Harutyunyan¹⁶⁶, Meetu Khosla¹⁶⁷, Max Korbmacher¹⁶⁸, Matúš Adamkovič^{169

170}, Matheus Fernando Felix Ribeiro¹⁷¹, Maria Terskova⁶⁶, Matej Hruška¹⁷², Marcel Martončik^{169

170}, Martin Voracek³⁶, Martin Čadek¹⁷³, Martha Frías-Armenta¹³⁸, Marta Kowal⁶⁴, Marta Topor¹⁷⁴, Marta Roczniewska^{175

176}, Marlies Oosterlinck¹⁷⁷, Markéta Braun Kohlová¹⁷⁸, Mariola Paruzel-Czachura^{179

180}, Marina Romanova³¹, Marietta Papadatou-Pastou¹⁸¹, Maria Louise Lund¹⁸², Maria Antoniadi¹⁵⁴, Marc V Jones⁵⁰, Manuel S Ortiz¹⁸³, Mathi Manavalan¹¹, Abdumalik Muminov¹⁸⁴, Małgorzata Kossowska¹⁸⁵, Maja Friedemann¹⁸⁶, Magdalena Wielgus¹⁸⁷, Marco A C Varella¹⁸⁸, Melissa F Colloff¹⁸⁹, Maria Bradford²⁷, Leigh Ann Vaughn¹⁹⁰, Luis Eudave¹⁹¹, Luc Vieira¹⁹², Lina Maria Sanabria Pineda²⁷, Laura Calderón Pérez²⁷, Ljiljana B Lazarevic¹⁹³, Lisa M Jaremka¹⁹⁴, Elizaveta Kushnir¹⁹⁵, Lisa Anton-Boicuk¹¹⁵, Gabriel Lins de Holanda Coelho¹⁹⁶, Lina Ahlgren¹⁹⁷, Carmel A Levitan¹⁹⁸, Leticia Micheli¹⁹⁹, Leonhard Volz²³, Marija Stojanovska⁵⁸, Leanne Boucher²⁹, Lara Samojlenko²⁰⁰, Lady Grey Javela Delgado²⁰¹, Lada Kaliska²⁰², Lara Warmelink²⁰³, Luis Miguel Rojas-Berscia²⁰⁴, Karen Yu²⁰⁵, Jakub Wachowicz²⁰⁶, Kermeka Desai¹⁷, Krystian Barzykowski⁵⁴, Luca Kozma¹², Kortnee Evans²⁰⁷, Komila Kirgizova²⁰⁸, Bamikole Emmanuel Agesin²⁰⁹, Monica A Koehn²¹⁰, Kelly Wolfe²¹¹, Tatiana Korobova²¹², Kristoffer Klevjer²¹³, Kevin van Schie^{214

215}, Kevin Vezirian⁶³, Kaja Damnjanović²¹⁶, Katrine Krabbe Thommesen²¹⁷, Kathleen Schmidt²¹⁸, Katarzyna Filip⁵⁴, Karolina Grzech^{219

220}, Karlijn Hoyer²²¹, Karis Moon²²², Kafeel Rana¹⁴⁴, Kristina Janjić⁵⁷, Jordan W Suchow²²³, Julita Kielińska⁵⁴, Julio E Cruz Vásquez²²⁴, Julia Beitner²²⁵, Juan Camilo Vargas-Nieto²⁷, Jose Carlos T Roxas^{107

226}, Jennifer Taber¹²⁷, Joan Urriago-Rayo²²⁷, Jeffrey M Pavlacic⁶⁰, Jozef Bavolar¹¹⁰, José A Soto¹³³, Jonas K Olofsson⁴⁸, Johannes K Vilsmeier²²⁸, Johanna Messerschmidt²²⁹, Johanna Czamanski-Cohen^{230

231}, Jordane Boudesseul²³², Jeong Min Lee²³³, Julia Kamburidis¹⁰¹, Janis Zickfeld²³⁴, Jacob F Miranda²³⁵, Jeroen P H Verharen²³⁶, Evgeniya Hristova²³⁷, Julie E Beshears²³⁸, Jasna Milošević Đorđević²³⁹, Jasmijn Bosch²⁴⁰, Jaroslava Varella Valentova¹⁸⁸, Jan Antfolk¹⁹⁷, Jana B Berkessel²⁴¹, Jana Schrötter²⁴², Jan Urban¹⁷⁸, Jan Philipp Röer²⁴³, James O Norton²⁴⁴, Jaime R Silva^{245

246

247}, Jade S Pickering²⁴⁸, Jáchym Vintr²⁴⁹, Jim Uttley²⁵⁰, Jonas R Kunst²⁵¹, Izuchukwu L G Ndukaihe²⁵², Aishwarya Iyer²⁵³, Iris Vilares¹¹, Aleksandr Ivanov³¹, Ivan Ropovik^{254

255}, Isabela Sula²⁵⁶, Irena Sarieva³¹, Irem Metin-Orta²⁵⁷, Irina Prusova⁶⁶, Isabel Pinto⁷⁴, Andreea Ioana Bozdoc²⁵⁸, Inês A T Almeida²⁵⁹, Ilse L Pit^{260

261}, Ilker Dalgar²⁶², Ilya Zakharov²⁶³, Azuka Ikechukwu Arinze¹²⁴, Keiko Ihaya²⁶⁴, Ian D Stephen⁹⁰, Biljana Gjoneska²⁶⁵, Hilmar Brohmer²⁶⁶, Heather Flowe²⁶⁷, Hendrik Godbersen⁸⁴, Halil Emre Kocalar²⁶⁸, Mattie V Hedgebeth²⁶⁹, Hu Chuan-Peng²⁷⁰, MohammadHasan Sharifian²⁷¹, Harry Manley²⁷², Handan Akkas²⁷³, Nandor Hajdu⁵², Habiba Azab²⁷⁴, Gwenael Kaminski²⁷⁵, Gustav Nilsonne^{48

276}, Gulnaz Anjum²⁵¹, Giovanni A Travaglino²⁷⁷, Gilad Feldman²⁷⁸, Gerit Pfuhl²⁷⁹, Gabriela Czarnek⁵³, Gabriela Mariana Marcu^{258

280}, Gabriela Hofer²⁶⁶, Gabriel Banik²⁸¹, Gabriel Agboola Adetula²⁸², Gijsbert Bijlstra²⁸³, Frederick Verbruggen¹⁴, Franki Y H Kung²⁸⁴, Francesco Foroni²⁸⁵, Gage Singer¹⁰⁸, Fany Muchembled²⁸⁶, Flavio Azevedo²⁸⁷, Farnaz Mosannenzadeh²⁸⁸, Evelina Marinov¹⁰¹, Eva Štrukelj²⁸⁹, Zahra Etebari²⁹⁰, Ernest Baskin²⁹¹, Elkin Oswaldo Luis Garcia²⁹², Erica Musser²⁹³, I M M van Steenkiste²⁹⁴, El Rim Ahn¹⁸, Ekaterina Pronizius³⁶, Emily A Jackson¹⁷, Efisio Manunta²⁷⁴, Elena Agadullina³¹, Dušana Šakan⁷⁸, Pinar Dursun²⁹⁵, Olivier Dujols²⁹⁶, Dmitrii Dubrov³¹, Megan Willis²⁹⁷, Murat Tümer²⁹⁸, Jennifer L Beaudry²⁹⁹, Dora Popović³⁰⁰, Daniel Dunleavy³⁰¹, Ikhlas Djamai³⁰², Dino Krupić³⁰³, Diego Vega³⁰⁴, Hongfei Du³⁰⁵, Débora Mola³⁰⁶, William E Davis³⁰⁷, Dawn Liu Holford¹¹⁴, David M G Lewis^{207

308}, David C Vaidis¹⁹², Daphna Hausman Ozery³⁰⁹, Danilo Zambrano Ricaurte³¹⁰, Daniel Storage³¹¹, Daniela Sousa³¹², Daniela Serrato Alvarez³¹³, Anna Dalla Rosa³¹⁴, Dajana Krupić³¹⁵, Dafne Marko³¹⁶, David Moreau³¹⁷, Crystal Reeck³¹⁸, Rita C Correia⁷⁴, Cassie M Whitt³¹⁹, Claus Lamm³⁶, Claudio Singh Solorzano³²⁰, Claudia C von Bastian³²¹, Clare Am Sutherland^{322

323}, Clara Overkott³²⁴, Christopher L Aberson³²⁵, Chunhui Wang³²⁶, Christiana Karashiali³²⁷, Chris Noone³²⁸, Faith Chiu³²⁹, Chiara Picciocchi³³⁰, Cemre Karaarslan⁷², Nicola Cellini³³¹, Celia Esteban-Serna³³², Cecilia Reyna³³³, Carlota Batres³³⁴, Ranran Li³³⁵, Caterina Grano³²⁰, Joelle Carpentier³³⁶, Christian K Tamnes²⁵¹, Cynthia H Y Fu^{337

338}, Byurakn Ishkhanyan^{339

340}, Lisa Bylinina³⁴¹, Bastian Jaeger^{93

335}, Carsten Bundt²⁵¹, Tara Bulut Allred³⁴², Ahmed Bokkour³⁰¹, Natalia Bogatyreva⁶⁶, William J Chopik³⁴³, Benedict Antazo³⁴⁴, Behzad Behzadnia³⁴⁵, Maja Becker³⁴⁶, Beatrice Cocco³⁴⁷, Wei-Lun Chou³⁴⁸, Barbora Hubena³⁴⁹, Barbara Žuro^{350

351}, Balazs Aczel⁵², Ekaterina Baklanova³⁵², Hui Bai³⁵³, Busra Bahar Balci^{354

355}, Peter Babinčák³⁵⁶, Barnaby James Wyld Dixson³⁵⁷, Aviv Mokady³⁵⁸, Heather Barry Kappes³⁵⁹, Mohammad Atari³⁶⁰, Anna Szala³⁶¹, Anna Szabelska³⁶², John Jamir Benzon Aruta³⁶³, Artur Domurat¹⁷⁹, Nwadiogo Chisom Arinze³⁶⁴, Arianna Modena³⁶⁵, Arca Adiguzel²⁶⁹, Arash Monajem³⁶⁶, Kanza Ait El Arabi³⁶⁷, Asil Ali Özdoğru³⁶⁸, Adriana Julieth Olaya Torres³⁶⁹, Andriana Theodoropoulou³⁷⁰, Anita Penić Jurković³⁷¹, Angelos P Kassianos^{372

373}, Andrej Findor³⁷⁴, Andree Hartanto¹³⁵, Anais Thibault Landry³⁷⁵, Ana Ferreira²⁶⁰, Anabela Caetano Santos^{278

376

377}, Anabel De la Rosa-Gomez³⁷⁸, Amélie Gourdon-Kanhukamwe^{379

380

381}, Anna Louise Todsen³⁸², Alper Karababa³⁸³, Allison Janak³⁸⁴, Alexandre Bran¹⁹², Alexa M Tullett³⁸⁵, Anna O Kuzminska³⁸⁶, Anthony J Krafnick⁹⁷, Anum Urooj²⁸⁵, Ahmed Khaoudi³⁰², Afroja Ahmed³⁸⁷, Agata Groyecka-Bernard⁶⁴, Adrian Dahl Askelund³⁸⁸, Adeyemi Adetula^{63

252}, Anabel Belaus¹¹⁸, Abdelilah Ca Charyate³⁸⁹, Aaron L Wichman³⁹⁰, Alina Stoyanova¹⁰¹, Anna Greenburgh³⁹¹, Andrew G Thomas³⁹², Alexios Arvanitis³⁹³, Patrick S Forscher^{63

394}, Peter R Mallik³⁹⁵, Maximilian A Primbs²⁸³, Jeremy K Miller³⁹⁶, Hannah Moshontz³⁹⁷, Heather L Urry³⁹⁸, Hans IJzerman^{63

399}, Dana M Basnight-Brown⁴⁰⁰, Christopher R Chartier³⁹⁵, Erin M Buchanan^#⁴⁰¹, Nicholas A Coles^#^{2

402}

Affiliations

¹ Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA.
² Harvard Kennedy School, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA.
³ Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA.
⁴ Peabody College of Education and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, USA.
⁵ Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA.
⁶ Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA USA.
⁷ Mathematica, Cambridge, MA USA.
⁸ University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA.
⁹ United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates.
¹⁰ Wolfson College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
¹¹ Twin Cities, Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA.
¹² Institute of Psychology, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.
¹³ Department of Translation Studies, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
¹⁴ Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
¹⁵ Grenoble Ecole de Management, Grenoble, France.
¹⁶ Culemborg, Netherlands.
¹⁷ Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, USA.
¹⁸ Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.
¹⁹ Department of Psychology, Senshu University, Kawasaki, Japan.
²⁰ Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.
²¹ Department of Psychology, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China.
²² Institute of Linguistics, Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China.
²³ University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
²⁴ Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, USA.
²⁵ Montclair State University, Montclair, USA.
²⁶ INSEAD, Singapore, Singapore.
²⁷ Department of Psychology, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia.
²⁸ Department of Psychology, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR China.
²⁹ Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, USA.
³⁰ Charles University, Prague, Czechia.
³¹ HSE University, Moscow, Russia.
³² Department of Strategy and Management, NHH Norwegian School of Economics, Bergen, Norway.
³³ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia.
³⁴ Department of Cognitive Science and Psychology, New Bulgarian University, Sofia, Bulgaria.
³⁵ Department of Psychology, University of Zadar|, Zadar, Croatia.
³⁶ Department of Cognition, Emotion, and Methods in Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
³⁷ University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR China.
³⁸ Department of Psychology, University of East London, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
³⁹ Dunoon, Scotland.
⁴⁰ Department of Social and Work Psychology, University of Brasília, Brasilia, Brasília, Brazil.
⁴¹ Department of Psychology and Psychotherapy, Witten/Herdecke University, Witten, Germany.
⁴² Université de Lorraine, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, BETA, Nancy, France.
⁴³ Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
⁴⁴ University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
⁴⁵ Lazaridis School of Business and Economics, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Canada.
⁴⁶ Institute for Linguistic Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
⁴⁷ South Carolina, USA.
⁴⁸ Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
⁴⁹ Department of Linguistics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
⁵⁰ Department of Psychology, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.
⁵¹ Faculty of Integrated Arts and Social Sciences, Japan Women's University, Tokyo, Japan.
⁵² Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.
⁵³ Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.
⁵⁴ School of Applied Psychology, ZHAW Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Winterthur, Switzerland.
⁵⁵ Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
⁵⁶ Icam Toulouse, Department of Humanities, Toulouse, France.
⁵⁷ PSA Psihesko, Skopje, North Macedonia.
⁵⁸ School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Malaysia.
⁵⁹ Department of Psychology and Psychodynamics, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems an der Donau, Austria.
⁶⁰ Department of Psychology, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS USA.
⁶¹ T A Pai Management Institute, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India.
⁶² Department of Psychology, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat, Morocco.
⁶³ Université Grenoble Alpes, LIP/PC2S, Grenoble, France.
⁶⁴ Institute of Psychology, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland.
⁶⁵ Ashland University, Ashland, USA.
⁶⁶ National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia.
⁶⁷ Department of Neurology, Mauritius Hospital Meerbusch, Meerbusch, Germany.
⁶⁸ Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
⁶⁹ Department of Psychology, University of the Fraser Valley, Abbotsford, Canada.
⁷⁰ Department of Psychology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
⁷¹ Department of Psychology, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia.
⁷² Department of Psychology, Institute of Social Sciences, University of Başkent, Ankara, Turkey.
⁷³ University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.
⁷⁴ Center for Psychology at University of Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
⁷⁵ Faculty of Arts, Psychology, and Theology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland.
⁷⁶ Grupo de investigación en Biogeografía y Ecología Espacial (BioGeoE2), Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Tena, Ecuador.
⁷⁷ University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Colombia.
⁷⁸ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Legal and Business Studies Dr Lazar Vrkatic, Union University, Novi Sad, Serbia.
⁷⁹ Black Dog Institute, Sydney, Australia.
⁸⁰ School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
⁸¹ Emotional Health For All Foundation, Jakarta, Indonesia.
⁸² Department of Psychology, Erzurum Technical University, Erzurum, Turkey.
⁸³ Ankara, Turkey.
⁸⁴ FOM University of Applied Sciences, Essen, Germany.
⁸⁵ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
⁸⁶ Department of Sport Management, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran.
⁸⁷ Institute of Psychology, University of Opole, Opole, Poland.
⁸⁸ Universidade Cruzeiro do Sul, São Paulo, Brazil.
⁸⁹ Facultad de Psicología, Universidad San Sebastián, Valdivia, Chile.
⁹⁰ Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
⁹¹ Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, USA.
⁹² Department of Art Studies, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
⁹³ Department of Social Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands.
⁹⁴ Department of Psychology, Federal University of Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, Brazil.
⁹⁵ Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Switzerland.
⁹⁶ Department of Psychology and Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben Gurion University, Beersheba, Israel.
⁹⁷ Department of Psychology, Dominican University, River Forest, USA.
⁹⁸ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Education, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
⁹⁹ Iscte-University Institute of Lisbon, CIS-IUL, Lisbon, Portugal.
¹⁰⁰ Intelligent Agents and Synthetic Characters Group (GAIPS), INESC-ID, Lisbon, Portugal.
¹⁰¹ Department of General, Experimental, Developmental, and Health Psychology, Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski, Sofia, Bulgaria.
¹⁰² ISCTE - Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, CIS-IUL, Lisbon, Portugal.
¹⁰³ Department of Psychology, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany.
¹⁰⁴ The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.
¹⁰⁵ Jacobs University Bremen, Bremen, Germany.
¹⁰⁶ Department of Human Development and Psychology, Tzu-Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan.
¹⁰⁷ Department of Psychology, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.
¹⁰⁸ Department of Psychology, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, USA.
¹⁰⁹ Department of Industrial Engineering and Innovation Sciences, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands.
¹¹⁰ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia.
¹¹¹ School of Psychology, Arellano University, Manila, Philippines.
¹¹² Social Science Department, College of Liberal Arts, Technological University of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines.
¹¹³ Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.
¹¹⁴ University of Essex, Essex, UK.
¹¹⁵ Social, Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Unit, Department of Cognition, Emotion, and Methods in Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
¹¹⁶ Concordia University, Montreal, Canada.
¹¹⁷ Athens University of Economics and Business, Athens, Greece.
¹¹⁸ Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas (IIPsi), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), Córdoba, Argentina.
¹¹⁹ Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
¹²⁰ Faculdade de Psicologia e Ciências da Educação, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
¹²¹ University of Deusto, Bilbao, Spain.
¹²² Barakaldo, Spain.
¹²³ Faculty of Education, Human and Social Sciences, Universidad Manuela Beltran, Bogotá, Colombia.
¹²⁴ Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Nigeria.
¹²⁵ SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland.
¹²⁶ Psychological Institute of Russian Academy of Education, Moscow, Russia.
¹²⁷ Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, USA.
¹²⁸ Department of Special Education and The Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.
¹²⁹ Department of Population and Quantitative Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, USA.
¹³⁰ Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
¹³¹ Milton Keynes, United Kingdom & London School of Economics and Political Science, Open University, London, UK.
¹³² Prague University of Economics and Business, Prague, Czechia.
¹³³ Department of Psychology, State College, The Pennsylvania State University, Philadelphia, USA.
¹³⁴ University of Delaware, Newark, USA.
¹³⁵ School of Social Sciences, Singapore Management University, Singapore, Singapore.
¹³⁶ Institute of Psychology, University of Hildesheim, Hildesheim, Germany.
¹³⁷ Poggio Imperiale, Italy.
¹³⁸ Universidad de Sonora, Sonora, México.
¹³⁹ Lhumain Laboratory, Paul Valery Montpellier 3 University, Montpellier, France.
¹⁴⁰ Department of Psychology, Universidad de Sonora, Sonora, Mexico.
¹⁴¹ Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK.
¹⁴² Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas (IIPsi), - CONICET - UNC, Cordoba, Argentina.
¹⁴³ Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Cordoba, Argentina.
¹⁴⁴ Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan.
¹⁴⁵ Bangladesh Clinical Psychology Society, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
¹⁴⁶ Faculty of Economics, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Lublin, Poland.
¹⁴⁷ University of Desarrollo, Concepción, Chile.
¹⁴⁸ Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester, UK.
¹⁴⁹ Department of Psychology, Middlebury College, Middlebury, USA.
¹⁵⁰ Vermont Psychological Services, University of Vermont, Burlington, USA.
¹⁵¹ Center for Research on Cognition and Behavior, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Sopot, Sopot, Poland.
¹⁵² Centro de Apego y Regulación Emocional, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Del Desarrollo, Concepción, Chile.
¹⁵³ Puebla, Mexico.
¹⁵⁴ University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus.
¹⁵⁵ Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy.
¹⁵⁶ Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
¹⁵⁷ Faculty of Media and Communications, Department of Psychology, Singidunum University, Belgrade, Serbia.
¹⁵⁸ University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.
¹⁵⁹ IDN Being Human Lab, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland.
¹⁶⁰ School of Anthropology & Museum Ethnography, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
¹⁶¹ Department of Cognitive Science and Psychology, Research Center for Cognitive Science, New Bulgarian University, Sofia, Bulgaria.
¹⁶² Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France.
¹⁶³ Centre of Attachment and Emotional Regulation, Faculty of Psychology, Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile.
¹⁶⁴ Department of Political Science, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey.
¹⁶⁵ Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, USA.
¹⁶⁶ Institute of Economic Studies, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.
¹⁶⁷ Psychology Department, University of Delhi, DRC, Delhi, India.
¹⁶⁸ Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway.
¹⁶⁹ Institute of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia.
¹⁷⁰ CSPS Slovak Academy of Sciences, Institute of Social Sciences, Košice, Slovakia.
¹⁷¹ Institute of Psychology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil.
¹⁷² Institute of European Studies and International Relations, Faculty of Social and Economic Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia.
¹⁷³ Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK.
¹⁷⁴ School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK.
¹⁷⁵ Department of Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Sopot, Sopot, Poland.
¹⁷⁶ Karolinska Institutet, Department of Learning, Informatics, Management, and Ethics, Stockholm, Sweden.
¹⁷⁷ Gent, Belgium.
¹⁷⁸ Charles University, Environment Centre, Prague, Czechia.
¹⁷⁹ Institute of Psychology, University of Silesia in Katowice, Katowice, Poland.
¹⁸⁰ Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Complutense Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
¹⁸¹ National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.
¹⁸² University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
¹⁸³ Departamento de Psicología. Laboratorio de Estrés y Salud, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile.
¹⁸⁴ Samarkand, Uzbekistan.
¹⁸⁵ Department of Philosophy, Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.
¹⁸⁶ University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
¹⁸⁷ Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.
¹⁸⁸ Institute of Psychology, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
¹⁸⁹ University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.
¹⁹⁰ Ithaca College, Ithaca, USA.
¹⁹¹ University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.
¹⁹² Université de Paris, Paris, France.
¹⁹³ Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
¹⁹⁴ Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, USA.
¹⁹⁵ Stockholm, Sweden.
¹⁹⁶ University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
¹⁹⁷ Faculty of Arts, Psychology and Theology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland.
¹⁹⁸ Department of Cognitive Science, Occidental College, Los Angeles, USA.
¹⁹⁹ Institute of Psychology, Leibniz University Hannover, Hanover, Germany.
²⁰⁰ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies, University of Primorska, Koper, Slovenia.
²⁰¹ Programa de Psicología, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia.
²⁰² Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Matej Bel University, Banska Bystrica, Slovakia.
²⁰³ Pontifical Catholic University of Puerto Rico Pontificia Universidad Católica Puerto Rico, Ponce, Puerto Rico.
²⁰⁴ School of Languages and Cultures, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
²⁰⁵ Department of Psychology, Sewanee: The University of the South, Sewanee, USA.
²⁰⁶ Lublin, Poland.
²⁰⁷ College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.
²⁰⁸ Florence, Italy.
²⁰⁹ Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko, Ondo State Nigeria.
²¹⁰ Faculty of Health, Discipline of Psychology, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia.
²¹¹ Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
²¹² London Gates Education Group, Moscow, Russia.
²¹³ Department of Psychology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
²¹⁴ Department of Psychology, Education & Child Studies, Erasmus School of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
²¹⁵ MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
²¹⁶ Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Psychology, Institute of Philosophy, The University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
²¹⁷ Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
²¹⁸ School of Psychological and Behavioral Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, USA.
²¹⁹ University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain.
²²⁰ Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
²²¹ Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands.
²²² Department of Management, Kingston University London, London, UK.
²²³ Stevens Institute of Technology, School of Business, Hoboken, USA.
²²⁴ Department of Psychology Bogotá, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia.
²²⁵ Department of Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
²²⁶ Department of Psychology, De La Salle College of Saint Benilde, Antipolo, Philippines.
²²⁷ Bogotá, Colombia.
²²⁸ Department of Cognition, Emotion, and Methods in Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
²²⁹ Institute of Psychology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany.
²³⁰ School of Creative Arts Therapies, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.
²³¹ Emili Sagol Creative Arts Therapies Research Center, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.
²³² Facultad de Psicología, Instituto de Investigación Científica, Universidad de Lima, Lima, Peru.
²³³ Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, USA.
²³⁴ Department of Management, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
²³⁵ Department of Psychology, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, USA.
²³⁶ Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, USA.
²³⁷ Cognitive Science and Psychology Department, New Bulgarian University, Sofia, Bulgaria.
²³⁸ Alliant International University, San Diego, USA.
²³⁹ Faculty of Media and Communication, Singidunum University, Belgrade, Serbia.
²⁴⁰ University of Milan-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.
²⁴¹ Mannheim Centre for European Social Research, University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.
²⁴² 1st Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia.
²⁴³ Department of Psychology, Witten/Herdecke University, Witten, Germany.
²⁴⁴ College of Science, Health, Engineering & Education, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.
²⁴⁵ Facultad de Psicología, Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile.
²⁴⁶ Clínica Alemana de Santiago, Santiago, Chile.
²⁴⁷ Sociedad Desarrollo Emocional, Santiago, Chile.
²⁴⁸ School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
²⁴⁹ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.
²⁵⁰ School of Architecture, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.
²⁵¹ Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
²⁵² Department of Psychology, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Nigeria.
²⁵³ Sampurna Montfort College, Bangalore, India.
²⁵⁴ Faculty of Education, Institute for Research and Development of Education, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.
²⁵⁵ Faculty of Education, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia.
²⁵⁶ San Polo d'Enza, Italy.
²⁵⁷ Department of Psychology, Atilim University, Ankara, Turkey.
²⁵⁸ Department of Psychology, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania.
²⁵⁹ Faculty of Medicine FMUC, Institute of Nuclear Sciences Applied to Health ICNAS, Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research CIBIT, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
²⁶⁰ Institute of Human Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
²⁶¹ Calleva Research Centre for Evolution and Human Sciences, Magdalen College, Oxford, UK.
²⁶² Department of Psychology, Ankara Medipol University, Ankara, Turkey.
²⁶³ Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education, Developmental Behavioral Genetics Laboratory, Moscow, Russia.
²⁶⁴ Fukuoka Institute of Technology, Center for Liberal Arts, Fukuoka, Japan.
²⁶⁵ Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Skopje, North Macedonia.
²⁶⁶ Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
²⁶⁷ School of Psychology, Birmingham, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.
²⁶⁸ Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Muğla, Turkey.
²⁶⁹ Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, USA.
²⁷⁰ School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China.
²⁷¹ Department of Psychology, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
²⁷² Faculty of Psychology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
²⁷³ Business Administration Department, Ankara Science University, Ankara, Turkey.
²⁷⁴ Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, USA.
²⁷⁵ Université de Toulouse, CLLE, CNRS, UT2J, Toulouse, France.
²⁷⁶ Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden.
²⁷⁷ Department of Law and Criminology, Royal Holloway, University of London, London, UK.
²⁷⁸ University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong SAR.
²⁷⁹ UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
²⁸⁰ Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania.
²⁸¹ Institute of Psychology, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia.
²⁸² Department of Pure and Applied Psychology, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko, Nigeria.
²⁸³ Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands.
²⁸⁴ Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA.
²⁸⁵ Australian Catholic University, Sydney, Australia.
²⁸⁶ Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico.
²⁸⁷ University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
²⁸⁸ Faculty of Social Sciences, Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands.
²⁸⁹ Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
²⁹⁰ Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.
²⁹¹ Saint Joseph's University, Philadelphia, USA.
²⁹² Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.
²⁹³ Department of Psychology, Center for Children and Families, Florida International University, Miami, USA.
²⁹⁴ Universiteit Leiden, Leiden, Netherlands.
²⁹⁵ Department of Psychology, Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey.
²⁹⁶ University of Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France.
²⁹⁷ School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Sydney, Australia.
²⁹⁸ Department of Anesthesiology and Reanimation, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey.
²⁹⁹ Department of Psychological Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia.
³⁰⁰ Institute of Social Sciences Ivo Pilar, Zagreb, Croatia.
³⁰¹ Center for Translational Behavioral Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, USA.
³⁰² Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat, Morocco.
³⁰³ Faculty of Humanities and Social Science, The University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia.
³⁰⁴ Universidad Latina de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica.
³⁰⁵ Institute of Advanced Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences, Beijing Normal University at Zhuhai, Zhuhai, China.
³⁰⁶ Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas ([IIPsi]CONICET y UNC), Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.
³⁰⁷ Department of Psychology, Wittenberg University, Springfield, USA.
³⁰⁸ Centre for Healthy Ageing, Health Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.
³⁰⁹ California State University, Northridge, USA.
³¹⁰ Faculty of Psychology, Fundación Universitaria Konrad Lorenz, Bogotá, Colombia.
³¹¹ Department of Psychology, University of Denver, Denver, USA.
³¹² Institute of Nuclear Sciences Applied to Health ICNAS, Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research CIBIT, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
³¹³ Fundación Universitaria Konrad Lorenz, Bogotá, Colombia.
³¹⁴ Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy.
³¹⁵ Norvel - Psychological Centre for Counselling and Research, Osijek, Croatia.
³¹⁶ Cognitive Science, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
³¹⁷ School of Psychology and Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
³¹⁸ Fox School of Business, Temple University, Philadelphia, USA.
³¹⁹ University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, USA.
³²⁰ Department of Psychology, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy.
³²¹ Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.
³²² School of Psychology, King's College, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland.
³²³ School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.
³²⁴ Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
³²⁵ Cal Poly Humboldt, Arcata, USA.
³²⁶ Chinese Center of Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing, China.
³²⁷ Department of Psychology, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus.
³²⁸ School of Psychology, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.
³²⁹ Department of Language and Linguistics, University of Essex, Essex, UK.
³³⁰ University of Naples L'Orientale, Naples, Italy.
³³¹ Department of General Psychology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Padova Neuroscience Center, and Human Inspired Technology Center, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.
³³² Division of Psychology & Language Sciences, University College London, London, UK.
³³³ Facultad de Psicología, Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas (IIPsi) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - UNC, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), Córdoba, Argentina.
³³⁴ Department of Psychology, Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, USA.
³³⁵ Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
³³⁶ School of Management, Department of Organization and Human Resources, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Canada.
³³⁷ School of Psychology, University of East London, London, UK.
³³⁸ Centre for Affective Disorders, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.
³³⁹ School of Communication and Culture, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
³⁴⁰ Department of Nordic Studies and Linguistics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
³⁴¹ Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands.
³⁴² Faculty of Philosophy, Laboratory for Research of Individual Differences, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
³⁴³ Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA.
³⁴⁴ Department of Psychology, Jose Rizal University, Mandaluyong, Philippines.
³⁴⁵ Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science, Department of Motor Behavior, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran.
³⁴⁶ Université de Toulouse, CLLE, CNRS, Toulouse, France.
³⁴⁷ Rieti, Italy.
³⁴⁸ Department of Psychology, Fo Guang University, Jiaoxi, Taiwan.
³⁴⁹ Prague, Czech Republic.
³⁵⁰ The Institute of Psychology, Dublin, Ireland.
³⁵¹ Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia.
³⁵² Institute of Asian and African Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.
³⁵³ University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Minneapolis, USA.
³⁵⁴ Department of Psychology, Samsun University, Samsun, Turkey.
³⁵⁵ Department of Psychology, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, Turkey.
³⁵⁶ Faculty of Arts, Institute and Psychology, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia.
³⁵⁷ School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Australia.
³⁵⁸ Department of Psychology, Ben Gurion University, Beersheba, Israel.
³⁵⁹ Department of Management, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, UK.
³⁶⁰ Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA.
³⁶¹ Centre of Language Evolution Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland.
³⁶² Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Ireland.
³⁶³ Department of Psychology, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
³⁶⁴ Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Abakaliki, Nigeria.
³⁶⁵ Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche, del Linguaggio, dell'Interpretazione e della Traduzione, Università degli Studi di Trieste, Trieste, Italy.
³⁶⁶ University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
³⁶⁷ Mohammed V University of Rabat, Rabat, Morocco.
³⁶⁸ Department of Psychology, Üsküdar University, Istanbul, Turkey.
³⁶⁹ Faculty of Psychology, Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile.
³⁷⁰ Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Essex, UK.
³⁷¹ Kindergarten Kustošija, Zagreb, Croatia.
³⁷² Department of Nursing, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus.
³⁷³ Department of Applied Health Research, University College London, London, UK.
³⁷⁴ Faculty of Social and Economic Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia.
³⁷⁵ John Molson Business School, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada.
³⁷⁶ Aventura Social and DESSH, Faculty of Human Kinetics, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.
³⁷⁷ Institute of Environmental Health, Medicine Faculty, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.
³⁷⁸ Faculty of Higher Studies Iztacala, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico.
³⁷⁹ Kingston University, London, UK.
³⁸⁰ King's College London, London, UK.
³⁸¹ Institute for Globally Distributed Open Research and Education (IGDORE), London, UK.
³⁸² Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, UK.
³⁸³ Department of Psychological Counselling and Guidance, Faculty of Education, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Muğla, Turkey.
³⁸⁴ Steinhardt, Department of Applied Psychology, New York University, New York, USA.
³⁸⁵ Department of Psychology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, USA.
³⁸⁶ Faculty of Management, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
³⁸⁷ Global MINDS, Department of Psychology, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland.
³⁸⁸ Nic Waals Institute, Lovisenberg Diaconal Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
³⁸⁹ Higher College of Education & Training Kenitra, Ibn Tofail University, Kenitra, Morocco.
³⁹⁰ Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, USA.
³⁹¹ Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London, UK.
³⁹² Psychology Department, Swansea University, Swansea, UK.
³⁹³ Department of Psychology, University of Crete, Rethymno, Greece.
³⁹⁴ Busara Center for Behavioral Economics, Nairobi, Kenya.
³⁹⁵ Department of Psychology, Ashland University, Ashland, USA.
³⁹⁶ Department of Psychology, Willamette University, Salem, USA.
³⁹⁷ Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA.
³⁹⁸ Department of Psychology, Tufts University, Medford, USA.
³⁹⁹ Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France.
⁴⁰⁰ United States International University - Africa, Nairobi, Kenya.
⁴⁰¹ Harrisburg University of Science and Technology, Harrisburg, USA.
⁴⁰² Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University, Stanford, USA.

^# Contributed equally.

PMID: 36185503
PMCID: PMC9510728
DOI: 10.1007/s42761-022-00128-3

In COVID-19 Health Messaging, Loss Framing Increases Anxiety with Little-to-No Concomitant Benefits: Experimental Evidence from 84 Countries

Charles A Dorison et al. Affect Sci. 2022.

. 2022 Sep 26;3(3):577-602.

doi: 10.1007/s42761-022-00128-3. eCollection 2022 Sep.

Authors

Affiliations

¹ Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA.
² Harvard Kennedy School, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA.
³ Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA.
⁴ Peabody College of Education and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, USA.
⁵ Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA.
⁶ Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA USA.
⁷ Mathematica, Cambridge, MA USA.
⁸ University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA.
⁹ United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates.
¹⁰ Wolfson College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
¹¹ Twin Cities, Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA.
¹² Institute of Psychology, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.
¹³ Department of Translation Studies, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
¹⁴ Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
¹⁵ Grenoble Ecole de Management, Grenoble, France.
¹⁶ Culemborg, Netherlands.
¹⁷ Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, USA.
¹⁸ Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.
¹⁹ Department of Psychology, Senshu University, Kawasaki, Japan.
²⁰ Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.
²¹ Department of Psychology, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China.
²² Institute of Linguistics, Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China.
²³ University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
²⁴ Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, USA.
²⁵ Montclair State University, Montclair, USA.
²⁶ INSEAD, Singapore, Singapore.
²⁷ Department of Psychology, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia.
²⁸ Department of Psychology, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR China.
²⁹ Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, USA.
³⁰ Charles University, Prague, Czechia.
³¹ HSE University, Moscow, Russia.
³² Department of Strategy and Management, NHH Norwegian School of Economics, Bergen, Norway.
³³ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia.
³⁴ Department of Cognitive Science and Psychology, New Bulgarian University, Sofia, Bulgaria.
³⁵ Department of Psychology, University of Zadar|, Zadar, Croatia.
³⁶ Department of Cognition, Emotion, and Methods in Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
³⁷ University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR China.
³⁸ Department of Psychology, University of East London, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
³⁹ Dunoon, Scotland.
⁴⁰ Department of Social and Work Psychology, University of Brasília, Brasilia, Brasília, Brazil.
⁴¹ Department of Psychology and Psychotherapy, Witten/Herdecke University, Witten, Germany.
⁴² Université de Lorraine, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, BETA, Nancy, France.
⁴³ Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
⁴⁴ University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
⁴⁵ Lazaridis School of Business and Economics, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Canada.
⁴⁶ Institute for Linguistic Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
⁴⁷ South Carolina, USA.
⁴⁸ Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
⁴⁹ Department of Linguistics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
⁵⁰ Department of Psychology, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.
⁵¹ Faculty of Integrated Arts and Social Sciences, Japan Women's University, Tokyo, Japan.
⁵² Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.
⁵³ Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.
⁵⁴ School of Applied Psychology, ZHAW Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Winterthur, Switzerland.
⁵⁵ Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
⁵⁶ Icam Toulouse, Department of Humanities, Toulouse, France.
⁵⁷ PSA Psihesko, Skopje, North Macedonia.
⁵⁸ School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Malaysia.
⁵⁹ Department of Psychology and Psychodynamics, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems an der Donau, Austria.
⁶⁰ Department of Psychology, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS USA.
⁶¹ T A Pai Management Institute, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India.
⁶² Department of Psychology, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat, Morocco.
⁶³ Université Grenoble Alpes, LIP/PC2S, Grenoble, France.
⁶⁴ Institute of Psychology, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland.
⁶⁵ Ashland University, Ashland, USA.
⁶⁶ National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia.
⁶⁷ Department of Neurology, Mauritius Hospital Meerbusch, Meerbusch, Germany.
⁶⁸ Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
⁶⁹ Department of Psychology, University of the Fraser Valley, Abbotsford, Canada.
⁷⁰ Department of Psychology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
⁷¹ Department of Psychology, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia.
⁷² Department of Psychology, Institute of Social Sciences, University of Başkent, Ankara, Turkey.
⁷³ University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.
⁷⁴ Center for Psychology at University of Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
⁷⁵ Faculty of Arts, Psychology, and Theology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland.
⁷⁶ Grupo de investigación en Biogeografía y Ecología Espacial (BioGeoE2), Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Tena, Ecuador.
⁷⁷ University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Colombia.
⁷⁸ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Legal and Business Studies Dr Lazar Vrkatic, Union University, Novi Sad, Serbia.
⁷⁹ Black Dog Institute, Sydney, Australia.
⁸⁰ School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
⁸¹ Emotional Health For All Foundation, Jakarta, Indonesia.
⁸² Department of Psychology, Erzurum Technical University, Erzurum, Turkey.
⁸³ Ankara, Turkey.
⁸⁴ FOM University of Applied Sciences, Essen, Germany.
⁸⁵ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
⁸⁶ Department of Sport Management, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran.
⁸⁷ Institute of Psychology, University of Opole, Opole, Poland.
⁸⁸ Universidade Cruzeiro do Sul, São Paulo, Brazil.
⁸⁹ Facultad de Psicología, Universidad San Sebastián, Valdivia, Chile.
⁹⁰ Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
⁹¹ Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, USA.
⁹² Department of Art Studies, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
⁹³ Department of Social Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands.
⁹⁴ Department of Psychology, Federal University of Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, Brazil.
⁹⁵ Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Switzerland.
⁹⁶ Department of Psychology and Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben Gurion University, Beersheba, Israel.
⁹⁷ Department of Psychology, Dominican University, River Forest, USA.
⁹⁸ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Education, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
⁹⁹ Iscte-University Institute of Lisbon, CIS-IUL, Lisbon, Portugal.
¹⁰⁰ Intelligent Agents and Synthetic Characters Group (GAIPS), INESC-ID, Lisbon, Portugal.
¹⁰¹ Department of General, Experimental, Developmental, and Health Psychology, Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski, Sofia, Bulgaria.
¹⁰² ISCTE - Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, CIS-IUL, Lisbon, Portugal.
¹⁰³ Department of Psychology, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany.
¹⁰⁴ The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.
¹⁰⁵ Jacobs University Bremen, Bremen, Germany.
¹⁰⁶ Department of Human Development and Psychology, Tzu-Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan.
¹⁰⁷ Department of Psychology, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.
¹⁰⁸ Department of Psychology, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, USA.
¹⁰⁹ Department of Industrial Engineering and Innovation Sciences, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands.
¹¹⁰ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia.
¹¹¹ School of Psychology, Arellano University, Manila, Philippines.
¹¹² Social Science Department, College of Liberal Arts, Technological University of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines.
¹¹³ Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.
¹¹⁴ University of Essex, Essex, UK.
¹¹⁵ Social, Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Unit, Department of Cognition, Emotion, and Methods in Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
¹¹⁶ Concordia University, Montreal, Canada.
¹¹⁷ Athens University of Economics and Business, Athens, Greece.
¹¹⁸ Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas (IIPsi), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), Córdoba, Argentina.
¹¹⁹ Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
¹²⁰ Faculdade de Psicologia e Ciências da Educação, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
¹²¹ University of Deusto, Bilbao, Spain.
¹²² Barakaldo, Spain.
¹²³ Faculty of Education, Human and Social Sciences, Universidad Manuela Beltran, Bogotá, Colombia.
¹²⁴ Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Nigeria.
¹²⁵ SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland.
¹²⁶ Psychological Institute of Russian Academy of Education, Moscow, Russia.
¹²⁷ Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, USA.
¹²⁸ Department of Special Education and The Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.
¹²⁹ Department of Population and Quantitative Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, USA.
¹³⁰ Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
¹³¹ Milton Keynes, United Kingdom & London School of Economics and Political Science, Open University, London, UK.
¹³² Prague University of Economics and Business, Prague, Czechia.
¹³³ Department of Psychology, State College, The Pennsylvania State University, Philadelphia, USA.
¹³⁴ University of Delaware, Newark, USA.
¹³⁵ School of Social Sciences, Singapore Management University, Singapore, Singapore.
¹³⁶ Institute of Psychology, University of Hildesheim, Hildesheim, Germany.
¹³⁷ Poggio Imperiale, Italy.
¹³⁸ Universidad de Sonora, Sonora, México.
¹³⁹ Lhumain Laboratory, Paul Valery Montpellier 3 University, Montpellier, France.
¹⁴⁰ Department of Psychology, Universidad de Sonora, Sonora, Mexico.
¹⁴¹ Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK.
¹⁴² Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas (IIPsi), - CONICET - UNC, Cordoba, Argentina.
¹⁴³ Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Cordoba, Argentina.
¹⁴⁴ Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan.
¹⁴⁵ Bangladesh Clinical Psychology Society, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
¹⁴⁶ Faculty of Economics, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Lublin, Poland.
¹⁴⁷ University of Desarrollo, Concepción, Chile.
¹⁴⁸ Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester, UK.
¹⁴⁹ Department of Psychology, Middlebury College, Middlebury, USA.
¹⁵⁰ Vermont Psychological Services, University of Vermont, Burlington, USA.
¹⁵¹ Center for Research on Cognition and Behavior, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Sopot, Sopot, Poland.
¹⁵² Centro de Apego y Regulación Emocional, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Del Desarrollo, Concepción, Chile.
¹⁵³ Puebla, Mexico.
¹⁵⁴ University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus.
¹⁵⁵ Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy.
¹⁵⁶ Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
¹⁵⁷ Faculty of Media and Communications, Department of Psychology, Singidunum University, Belgrade, Serbia.
¹⁵⁸ University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.
¹⁵⁹ IDN Being Human Lab, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland.
¹⁶⁰ School of Anthropology & Museum Ethnography, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
¹⁶¹ Department of Cognitive Science and Psychology, Research Center for Cognitive Science, New Bulgarian University, Sofia, Bulgaria.
¹⁶² Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France.
¹⁶³ Centre of Attachment and Emotional Regulation, Faculty of Psychology, Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile.
¹⁶⁴ Department of Political Science, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey.
¹⁶⁵ Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, USA.
¹⁶⁶ Institute of Economic Studies, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.
¹⁶⁷ Psychology Department, University of Delhi, DRC, Delhi, India.
¹⁶⁸ Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway.
¹⁶⁹ Institute of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia.
¹⁷⁰ CSPS Slovak Academy of Sciences, Institute of Social Sciences, Košice, Slovakia.
¹⁷¹ Institute of Psychology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil.
¹⁷² Institute of European Studies and International Relations, Faculty of Social and Economic Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia.
¹⁷³ Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK.
¹⁷⁴ School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK.
¹⁷⁵ Department of Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Sopot, Sopot, Poland.
¹⁷⁶ Karolinska Institutet, Department of Learning, Informatics, Management, and Ethics, Stockholm, Sweden.
¹⁷⁷ Gent, Belgium.
¹⁷⁸ Charles University, Environment Centre, Prague, Czechia.
¹⁷⁹ Institute of Psychology, University of Silesia in Katowice, Katowice, Poland.
¹⁸⁰ Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Complutense Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
¹⁸¹ National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.
¹⁸² University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
¹⁸³ Departamento de Psicología. Laboratorio de Estrés y Salud, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile.
¹⁸⁴ Samarkand, Uzbekistan.
¹⁸⁵ Department of Philosophy, Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.
¹⁸⁶ University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
¹⁸⁷ Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.
¹⁸⁸ Institute of Psychology, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
¹⁸⁹ University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.
¹⁹⁰ Ithaca College, Ithaca, USA.
¹⁹¹ University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.
¹⁹² Université de Paris, Paris, France.
¹⁹³ Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
¹⁹⁴ Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, USA.
¹⁹⁵ Stockholm, Sweden.
¹⁹⁶ University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
¹⁹⁷ Faculty of Arts, Psychology and Theology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland.
¹⁹⁸ Department of Cognitive Science, Occidental College, Los Angeles, USA.
¹⁹⁹ Institute of Psychology, Leibniz University Hannover, Hanover, Germany.
²⁰⁰ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies, University of Primorska, Koper, Slovenia.
²⁰¹ Programa de Psicología, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia.
²⁰² Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Matej Bel University, Banska Bystrica, Slovakia.
²⁰³ Pontifical Catholic University of Puerto Rico Pontificia Universidad Católica Puerto Rico, Ponce, Puerto Rico.
²⁰⁴ School of Languages and Cultures, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
²⁰⁵ Department of Psychology, Sewanee: The University of the South, Sewanee, USA.
²⁰⁶ Lublin, Poland.
²⁰⁷ College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.
²⁰⁸ Florence, Italy.
²⁰⁹ Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko, Ondo State Nigeria.
²¹⁰ Faculty of Health, Discipline of Psychology, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia.
²¹¹ Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
²¹² London Gates Education Group, Moscow, Russia.
²¹³ Department of Psychology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
²¹⁴ Department of Psychology, Education & Child Studies, Erasmus School of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
²¹⁵ MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
²¹⁶ Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Psychology, Institute of Philosophy, The University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
²¹⁷ Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
²¹⁸ School of Psychological and Behavioral Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, USA.
²¹⁹ University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain.
²²⁰ Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
²²¹ Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands.
²²² Department of Management, Kingston University London, London, UK.
²²³ Stevens Institute of Technology, School of Business, Hoboken, USA.
²²⁴ Department of Psychology Bogotá, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia.
²²⁵ Department of Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
²²⁶ Department of Psychology, De La Salle College of Saint Benilde, Antipolo, Philippines.
²²⁷ Bogotá, Colombia.
²²⁸ Department of Cognition, Emotion, and Methods in Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
²²⁹ Institute of Psychology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany.
²³⁰ School of Creative Arts Therapies, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.
²³¹ Emili Sagol Creative Arts Therapies Research Center, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.
²³² Facultad de Psicología, Instituto de Investigación Científica, Universidad de Lima, Lima, Peru.
²³³ Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, USA.
²³⁴ Department of Management, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
²³⁵ Department of Psychology, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, USA.
²³⁶ Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, USA.
²³⁷ Cognitive Science and Psychology Department, New Bulgarian University, Sofia, Bulgaria.
²³⁸ Alliant International University, San Diego, USA.
²³⁹ Faculty of Media and Communication, Singidunum University, Belgrade, Serbia.
²⁴⁰ University of Milan-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.
²⁴¹ Mannheim Centre for European Social Research, University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.
²⁴² 1st Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia.
²⁴³ Department of Psychology, Witten/Herdecke University, Witten, Germany.
²⁴⁴ College of Science, Health, Engineering & Education, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.
²⁴⁵ Facultad de Psicología, Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile.
²⁴⁶ Clínica Alemana de Santiago, Santiago, Chile.
²⁴⁷ Sociedad Desarrollo Emocional, Santiago, Chile.
²⁴⁸ School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
²⁴⁹ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.
²⁵⁰ School of Architecture, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.
²⁵¹ Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
²⁵² Department of Psychology, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Nigeria.
²⁵³ Sampurna Montfort College, Bangalore, India.
²⁵⁴ Faculty of Education, Institute for Research and Development of Education, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.
²⁵⁵ Faculty of Education, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia.
²⁵⁶ San Polo d'Enza, Italy.
²⁵⁷ Department of Psychology, Atilim University, Ankara, Turkey.
²⁵⁸ Department of Psychology, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania.
²⁵⁹ Faculty of Medicine FMUC, Institute of Nuclear Sciences Applied to Health ICNAS, Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research CIBIT, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
²⁶⁰ Institute of Human Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
²⁶¹ Calleva Research Centre for Evolution and Human Sciences, Magdalen College, Oxford, UK.
²⁶² Department of Psychology, Ankara Medipol University, Ankara, Turkey.
²⁶³ Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education, Developmental Behavioral Genetics Laboratory, Moscow, Russia.
²⁶⁴ Fukuoka Institute of Technology, Center for Liberal Arts, Fukuoka, Japan.
²⁶⁵ Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Skopje, North Macedonia.
²⁶⁶ Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
²⁶⁷ School of Psychology, Birmingham, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.
²⁶⁸ Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Muğla, Turkey.
²⁶⁹ Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, USA.
²⁷⁰ School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China.
²⁷¹ Department of Psychology, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
²⁷² Faculty of Psychology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
²⁷³ Business Administration Department, Ankara Science University, Ankara, Turkey.
²⁷⁴ Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, USA.
²⁷⁵ Université de Toulouse, CLLE, CNRS, UT2J, Toulouse, France.
²⁷⁶ Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden.
²⁷⁷ Department of Law and Criminology, Royal Holloway, University of London, London, UK.
²⁷⁸ University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong SAR.
²⁷⁹ UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
²⁸⁰ Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania.
²⁸¹ Institute of Psychology, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia.
²⁸² Department of Pure and Applied Psychology, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko, Nigeria.
²⁸³ Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands.
²⁸⁴ Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA.
²⁸⁵ Australian Catholic University, Sydney, Australia.
²⁸⁶ Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico.
²⁸⁷ University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
²⁸⁸ Faculty of Social Sciences, Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands.
²⁸⁹ Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
²⁹⁰ Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.
²⁹¹ Saint Joseph's University, Philadelphia, USA.
²⁹² Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.
²⁹³ Department of Psychology, Center for Children and Families, Florida International University, Miami, USA.
²⁹⁴ Universiteit Leiden, Leiden, Netherlands.
²⁹⁵ Department of Psychology, Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey.
²⁹⁶ University of Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France.
²⁹⁷ School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Sydney, Australia.
²⁹⁸ Department of Anesthesiology and Reanimation, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey.
²⁹⁹ Department of Psychological Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia.
³⁰⁰ Institute of Social Sciences Ivo Pilar, Zagreb, Croatia.
³⁰¹ Center for Translational Behavioral Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, USA.
³⁰² Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat, Morocco.
³⁰³ Faculty of Humanities and Social Science, The University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia.
³⁰⁴ Universidad Latina de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica.
³⁰⁵ Institute of Advanced Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences, Beijing Normal University at Zhuhai, Zhuhai, China.
³⁰⁶ Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas ([IIPsi]CONICET y UNC), Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.
³⁰⁷ Department of Psychology, Wittenberg University, Springfield, USA.
³⁰⁸ Centre for Healthy Ageing, Health Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.
³⁰⁹ California State University, Northridge, USA.
³¹⁰ Faculty of Psychology, Fundación Universitaria Konrad Lorenz, Bogotá, Colombia.
³¹¹ Department of Psychology, University of Denver, Denver, USA.
³¹² Institute of Nuclear Sciences Applied to Health ICNAS, Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research CIBIT, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
³¹³ Fundación Universitaria Konrad Lorenz, Bogotá, Colombia.
³¹⁴ Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy.
³¹⁵ Norvel - Psychological Centre for Counselling and Research, Osijek, Croatia.
³¹⁶ Cognitive Science, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
³¹⁷ School of Psychology and Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
³¹⁸ Fox School of Business, Temple University, Philadelphia, USA.
³¹⁹ University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, USA.
³²⁰ Department of Psychology, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy.
³²¹ Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.
³²² School of Psychology, King's College, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland.
³²³ School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.
³²⁴ Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
³²⁵ Cal Poly Humboldt, Arcata, USA.
³²⁶ Chinese Center of Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing, China.
³²⁷ Department of Psychology, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus.
³²⁸ School of Psychology, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.
³²⁹ Department of Language and Linguistics, University of Essex, Essex, UK.
³³⁰ University of Naples L'Orientale, Naples, Italy.
³³¹ Department of General Psychology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Padova Neuroscience Center, and Human Inspired Technology Center, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.
³³² Division of Psychology & Language Sciences, University College London, London, UK.
³³³ Facultad de Psicología, Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas (IIPsi) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - UNC, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), Córdoba, Argentina.
³³⁴ Department of Psychology, Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, USA.
³³⁵ Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
³³⁶ School of Management, Department of Organization and Human Resources, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Canada.
³³⁷ School of Psychology, University of East London, London, UK.
³³⁸ Centre for Affective Disorders, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.
³³⁹ School of Communication and Culture, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
³⁴⁰ Department of Nordic Studies and Linguistics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
³⁴¹ Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands.
³⁴² Faculty of Philosophy, Laboratory for Research of Individual Differences, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
³⁴³ Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA.
³⁴⁴ Department of Psychology, Jose Rizal University, Mandaluyong, Philippines.
³⁴⁵ Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science, Department of Motor Behavior, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran.
³⁴⁶ Université de Toulouse, CLLE, CNRS, Toulouse, France.
³⁴⁷ Rieti, Italy.
³⁴⁸ Department of Psychology, Fo Guang University, Jiaoxi, Taiwan.
³⁴⁹ Prague, Czech Republic.
³⁵⁰ The Institute of Psychology, Dublin, Ireland.
³⁵¹ Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia.
³⁵² Institute of Asian and African Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.
³⁵³ University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Minneapolis, USA.
³⁵⁴ Department of Psychology, Samsun University, Samsun, Turkey.
³⁵⁵ Department of Psychology, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, Turkey.
³⁵⁶ Faculty of Arts, Institute and Psychology, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia.
³⁵⁷ School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Australia.
³⁵⁸ Department of Psychology, Ben Gurion University, Beersheba, Israel.
³⁵⁹ Department of Management, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, UK.
³⁶⁰ Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA.
³⁶¹ Centre of Language Evolution Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland.
³⁶² Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Ireland.
³⁶³ Department of Psychology, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
³⁶⁴ Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Abakaliki, Nigeria.
³⁶⁵ Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche, del Linguaggio, dell'Interpretazione e della Traduzione, Università degli Studi di Trieste, Trieste, Italy.
³⁶⁶ University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
³⁶⁷ Mohammed V University of Rabat, Rabat, Morocco.
³⁶⁸ Department of Psychology, Üsküdar University, Istanbul, Turkey.
³⁶⁹ Faculty of Psychology, Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile.
³⁷⁰ Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Essex, UK.
³⁷¹ Kindergarten Kustošija, Zagreb, Croatia.
³⁷² Department of Nursing, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus.
³⁷³ Department of Applied Health Research, University College London, London, UK.
³⁷⁴ Faculty of Social and Economic Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia.
³⁷⁵ John Molson Business School, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada.
³⁷⁶ Aventura Social and DESSH, Faculty of Human Kinetics, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.
³⁷⁷ Institute of Environmental Health, Medicine Faculty, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.
³⁷⁸ Faculty of Higher Studies Iztacala, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico.
³⁷⁹ Kingston University, London, UK.
³⁸⁰ King's College London, London, UK.
³⁸¹ Institute for Globally Distributed Open Research and Education (IGDORE), London, UK.
³⁸² Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, UK.
³⁸³ Department of Psychological Counselling and Guidance, Faculty of Education, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Muğla, Turkey.
³⁸⁴ Steinhardt, Department of Applied Psychology, New York University, New York, USA.
³⁸⁵ Department of Psychology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, USA.
³⁸⁶ Faculty of Management, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
³⁸⁷ Global MINDS, Department of Psychology, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland.
³⁸⁸ Nic Waals Institute, Lovisenberg Diaconal Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
³⁸⁹ Higher College of Education & Training Kenitra, Ibn Tofail University, Kenitra, Morocco.
³⁹⁰ Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, USA.
³⁹¹ Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London, UK.
³⁹² Psychology Department, Swansea University, Swansea, UK.
³⁹³ Department of Psychology, University of Crete, Rethymno, Greece.
³⁹⁴ Busara Center for Behavioral Economics, Nairobi, Kenya.
³⁹⁵ Department of Psychology, Ashland University, Ashland, USA.
³⁹⁶ Department of Psychology, Willamette University, Salem, USA.
³⁹⁷ Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA.
³⁹⁸ Department of Psychology, Tufts University, Medford, USA.
³⁹⁹ Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France.
⁴⁰⁰ United States International University - Africa, Nairobi, Kenya.
⁴⁰¹ Harrisburg University of Science and Technology, Harrisburg, USA.
⁴⁰² Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University, Stanford, USA.

^# Contributed equally.

PMID: 36185503
PMCID: PMC9510728
DOI: 10.1007/s42761-022-00128-3

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic (and its aftermath) highlights a critical need to communicate health information effectively to the global public. Given that subtle differences in information framing can have meaningful effects on behavior, behavioral science research highlights a pressing question: Is it more effective to frame COVID-19 health messages in terms of potential losses (e.g., "If you do not practice these steps, you can endanger yourself and others") or potential gains (e.g., "If you practice these steps, you can protect yourself and others")? Collecting data in 48 languages from 15,929 participants in 84 countries, we experimentally tested the effects of message framing on COVID-19-related judgments, intentions, and feelings. Loss- (vs. gain-) framed messages increased self-reported anxiety among participants cross-nationally with little-to-no impact on policy attitudes, behavioral intentions, or information seeking relevant to pandemic risks. These results were consistent across 84 countries, three variations of the message framing wording, and 560 data processing and analytic choices. Thus, results provide an empirical answer to a global communication question and highlight the emotional toll of loss-framed messages. Critically, this work demonstrates the importance of considering unintended affective consequences when evaluating nudge-style interventions.

Keywords: Anxiety; COVID-19; Message framing; Nudges.

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Conflict of interest statement

Conflict of InterestThe authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

**Fig. 1**
An example of a public service announcement from the CDC. This public service announcement used gain-framed messages to encourage mask-wearing (image from May, 2021)

**Fig. 2**
Loss-framed vs. gain-framed messages regarding COVID-19 influenced anxiety but not behavioral intentions, policy support, or information seeking. Cohen’s d was used as the effect size, with positive values indicating higher levels of the outcome variable in the loss-framed vs. gain-framed condition. Dots and bars represent the effect size estimates and 95% confidence intervals respectively. Country-level effect size estimates are denoted in black and overall effect size estimates are denoted in yellow. Country names are denoted by their International Organization for Standardization codes. To improve the viewability of the x-axis, 40 countries with fewer than 30 participants per group (i.e., relatively wide error bars) are removed from the plot. Nevertheless, these countries are still included in the overall effect size estimates

See this image and copyright information in PMC

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In COVID-19 Health Messaging, Loss Framing Increases Anxiety with Little-to-No Concomitant Benefits: Experimental Evidence from 84 Countries

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In COVID-19 Health Messaging, Loss Framing Increases Anxiety with Little-to-No Concomitant Benefits: Experimental Evidence from 84 Countries

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