Narrative review on century of respiratory pandemics from Spanish flu to COVID-19 and impact of nanotechnology on COVID-19 diagnosis and immune system boosting

Abstract

The rise of the highly lethal severe acute respiratory syndrome-2 (SARS-2) as corona virus 2019 (COVID-19) reminded us of the history of other pandemics that happened in the last century (Spanish flu) and stayed in the current century, which include Severe-Acute-Respiratory-Syndrome (SARS), Middle-East-Respiratory-Syndrome (MERS), Corona Virus 2019 (COVID-19). We review in this report the newest findings and data on the origin of pandemic respiratory viral diseases, reservoirs, and transmission modes. We analyzed viral adaption needed for host switch and determinants of pathogenicity, causative factors of pandemic viruses, and symptoms and clinical manifestations. After that, we concluded the host factors associated with pandemics morbidity and mortality (immune responses and immunopathology, ages, and effect of pandemics on pregnancy). Additionally, we focused on the burdens of COVID-19, non-pharmaceutical interventions (quarantine, mass gatherings, facemasks, and hygiene), and medical interventions (antiviral therapies and vaccines). Finally, we investigated the nanotechnology between COVID-19 analysis and immune system boosting (Nanoparticles (NPs), antimicrobial NPs as antivirals and immune cytokines). This review presents insights about using nanomaterials to treat COVID-19, improve the bioavailability of the abused drugs, diminish their toxicity, and improve their performance.

Keywords: Immune system; Nanotechnology; Respiratory pandemics; SARS-CoV-2; Spanish flu.

Fig. 1

Illustration of some essential information about the number of countries affected by respiratory viral pandemics from 1918 until 2022

Fig. 2

Illustration of the reservoir of pandemic influenza viruses in 1918. Wild aquatic birds and other species are considered to be a source of all influenza viruses. Even though Transmission between humans and pigs has already been demonstrated and confirmed, there has been a less direct transmission of avian to humans Frequent (such as those with subtypes H9N2 and H5N1) but often fatal. Regarding Beta coronavirus, Bats are the reservoir of a wide variety of coronaviruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV)-like viruses in 2002–2003, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) in 2012 besides to camels as the natural host of MERS-CoV and COVID-19 in 2019–2020

Fig. 3

The replication of of respiratory SARS-CoV-2 virus inside the host cell

Fig. 4

Illustration of some essential information about the most common symptoms among individuals who affected by any pandemic viral respiratory disease (H1N1 influenza, SARS, MERS, and COVID-19)

Fig. 5

Case fatality rates (CFR) of different epidemics/pandemics

Fig. 6

The immunopathology of COVID-19

Fig. 7

Effect of pandemics on pregnancy

Fig. 8

The difference between quarantine and isolation in COVID-19 pandemic

Fig. 9

The role of metal-based nanoparticles for activating immune cytokines

Fig. 10

Synthetic pathways for biodegradable nanoparticles and their in vivo applications