Graphdiyne-Related Materials in Biomedical Applications and Their Potential in Peripheral Nerve Tissue Engineering

Abstract

Graphdiyne (GDY) is a new member of the family of carbon-based nanomaterials with hybridized carbon atoms of sp and sp², including α, β, γ, and (6,6,12)-GDY, which differ in their percentage of acetylene bonds. The unique structure of GDY provides many attractive features, such as uniformly distributed pores, highly π-conjugated structure, high thermal stability, low toxicity, biodegradability, large specific surface area, tunable electrical conductivity, and remarkable thermal conductivity. Therefore, GDY is widely used in energy storage, catalysis, and energy fields, in addition to biomedical fields, such as biosensing, cancer therapy, drug delivery, radiation protection, and tissue engineering. In this review, we first discuss the synthesis of GDY with different shapes, including nanotubes, nanowires, nanowalls, and nanosheets. Second, we present the research progress in the biomedical field in recent years, along with the biodegradability and biocompatibility of GDY based on the existing literature. Subsequently, we present recent research results on the use of nanomaterials in peripheral nerve regeneration (PNR). Based on the wide application of nanomaterials in PNR and the remarkable properties of GDY, we predict the prospects and current challenges of GDY-based materials for PNR.

Figure 1

Structure of the different types of GDY and the possible collaborative antibacterial mechanisms of GDYs in terms of “physical” and “chemical” effects. (a) The different types of GDY. (A) α-GDY (B) β-GDY (C) γ-GDY, and (D) 6,6,18-GDY. Reproduced with permission from ref. [10]. Copyright 2020 Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Schematic illustration of the possible collaborative antibacterial mechanisms of GDYs in terms of “physical” and “chemical” effects. Reproduced with permission from ref. [18]. Copyright 2020 John Wiley and Sons.

Figure 2

(a) The SEM images of GDNTs with different magnification. (A) Plan view. (B) Plan view under higher magnification. (C) End view. (D) End view under higher magnification. Reproduced with permission from ref. [35]. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society. (b) TEM images of GDNWs under different magnifications. (A) TEM image under low magnification. (B, C) TEM images of high magnification (reproduced with permission from ref. [36]. Copyright 2012 The Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) SEM images of GDY nanowalls. (A) Top view. (B) Cross-sectional view. Reproduced with permission from ref. [38]. Copyright 2015 American Chemical Society. (d) SEM images of 3DGDY. Reproduced with permission from ref. [45]. Copyright 2018 John Wiley and Sons.

Figure 3

Schematic illustration of the generation of GDY with different methods. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of GDY nanowall. Reproduced with permission from ref. [38]. Copyright 2015 American Chemical Society. (b) Schematic illustration of the production of GDY nanosheet via gas/liquid interfacial. Reproduced with permission from ref. [40]. Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society. (c) Representation of the synthesis of GDY nanosheet on CuNW paper. Reproduced with permission from ref. [41]. Copyright 2018 Wiley Oline Library. (d) Schematic illustration of the generation of GDY nanofilm with different methods. (A) Schematic illustration of producing GDY on the surface of the silver. (B) Schematic illustration of the surface growth process. Reproduced with permission from ref. [47]. Copyright 2017 John Wiley and Sons. (e) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of GDY through liquid/liquid interfacial. Reproduced with permission from ref. [40]. Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society. (f) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of GDY film on graphene. Reproduced with permission from ref. [49]. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society. (g) The preparation process and morphology of GDYO nanosheets. (A) Schematic representation of the synthesis of GDYO nanosheets. (B) The morphology of GDYO nanosheets. Reproduced with permission from ref. [56]. Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society.

Figure 4

GDY application and advantages in the field of biomedicine. (a) GDY application in the field of biomedicine. (b) The advantages of GDY. Reproduced with permission from ref. [3]. Copyright 2019 John Wiley and Sons.

Figure 5

(a) The combination treatment of photothermal/chemotherapy for cancer. Reproduced with permission from ref. [85]. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society. (b) Schematic illustration whereby GDY oxide nanosheets promote the polarization of macrophages. Reproduced with permission from ref. [56]. Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society.

Figure 6

(a) Illustration of the simulation systems: two protein monomers of the dimer, colored in green and blue, respectively, sodium and chlorine ions, colored in yellow and cyan spheres. (A) Overhead view. (B) Lateral view. Reproduced with permission from ref. [111]. Copyright 2021 Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) MC3T3-E1 cell viability and adhesion of TiO2/GDY and TiO₂. (A) Cytoskeleton staining of cells, phalloidin (green), and DAPI (blue). (B) SEM images of cell morphology on different nanofibers. (C) Cell adhesion on different nanofibers. Reproduced with permission from ref. [21]. Copyright 2020 Springer Nature. (c) The vivo cytotoxicity evaluation of GDY and GDYO. Reproduced with permission from ref. [18]. Copyright 2020 John Wiley and Sons. (d) Cell viability for Gt, GtO, GO, and rGO. Reproduced with permission from ref. [118]. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.

Figure 7

Schematic diagram showing the biodegradation process of GDYO. Reproduced with permission from ref. [23]. Copyright 2021 Royal Society of Chemistry.

Figure 8

Summary of the four-factor microenvironmental cues during PNR.