SARS-CoV-2-on-Chip for Long COVID Management

Abstract

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become a "wicked evil" in this century due to its extended progression and huge human mortalities. Although the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 viral infection is made simple and practical by employing reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) investigation, the process is costly, complex, time-consuming, and requires experts for testing and the constraints of a laboratory. Therefore, these challenges have raised the paradigm of on-site portable biosensors on a single chip, which reduces human resources and enables remote access to minimize the overwhelming burden on the existing global healthcare sector. This article reviews the recent advancements in biosensors for long coronavirus disease (COVID) management using a multitude of devices, such as point-of-care biosensors and lab-on-chip biosensors. Furthermore, it details the shift in the paradigm of SARS-CoV-2-on-chip biosensors from the laboratory to on-site detection with intelligent and economical operation, representing near-future diagnostic technologies for public health emergency management.

Keywords: RT-PCR; SARS-CoV-2-on-chip; biosensors; long COVID; point-of-care.

Figure 1

(a) Process of detection and treatment by existing diagnostic techniques and point-of-care tests. Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature [4], Copyright (2020). (b) Various methods available to diagnose COVID-19. Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature [5], Copyright (2020).

Figure 2

Paper-based molecular diagnostic device. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier B.V. [10], Copyright (2015).

Figure 3

Schematic diagram depicts the advantages of lab-on-chip devices for COVID-19 testing. Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature [4], Copyright (2020).

Figure 4

Structure and binding of SARS-CoV-2 virus to human cells. Reproduced with permission from [20], Creative Commons.

Figure 5

Different types of RNA detection methods, such as (a) RT-PCR testing and (b) SARS-CoV-2 RT-LAMP testing. Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature [32], Copyright (2021).

Figure 6

Antigen detection associated with the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature [32], Copyright (2021).

Figure 7

Schematic diagram representing the “ASSURED” guidelines featuring point-of-care devices. Reproduced with permi ssion from [39], Creative Commons.

Figure 8

Schematic diagram of a point-of-care test. Reproduced with permission from [39]. Reproduced with permission from [39], Creative Commons.

Figure 9

Overview of a rapid diagnostic serological test. Reprinted with permission from [45] under a Creative Commons Attribution License.

Figure 10

A schematic showing the concept of μ-PAD printing. Reprinted with permission from [53] under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC-BY-NC-ND.

Figure 11

(A) Various components of a COVID-19 ePAD; SARS-CoV-2 antibody detection principle (B); and detection procedure (C). Reprinted with permission from Elsevier B.V. [57], Copyright (2020).

Figure 12

Schematic diagram of the LFIA calorimetric test strips. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier B.V. [57], Copyright (2020).