Large-scale identification of rodenticide resistance in Rattus norvegicus and Mus musculus in the Netherlands based on Vkorc1 codon 139 mutations

Abstract

Background: Resistance to rodenticides has been reported globally and poses a considerable problem for efficacy in pest control. The most-documented resistance to rodenticides in commensal rodents is associated with mutations in the Vkorc1 gene, in particular in codon 139. Resistance to anticoagulant rodenticides has been reported in the Netherlands since 1989. A study from 2013 showed that 25% of 169 Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) had a mutation at codon 139 of the Vkorc1 gene. To gain insight in the current status of rodenticide resistance amongst R. norvegicus and house mice Mus musculus in the Netherlands, we tested these rodents for mutations in codon 139 of the Vkorc1 gene. In addition, we collected data from pest controllers on their use of rodenticides and experience with rodenticide resistance.

Results: A total of 1801 rodent samples were collected throughout the country consisting of 1404 R. norvegicus and 397 M. musculus. In total, 15% of R. norvegicus [95% confidence interval (CI): 13-17%] and 38% of M. musculus (95% CI: 33-43%) carried a genetic mutation at codon 139 of the Vkorc1 gene.

Conclusion: This study demonstrates genetic mutations at codon 139 of the Vkorc1 gene in M. musculus in the Netherlands. Resistance to anticoagulant rodenticides is present in R. norvegicus and M. musculus in multiple regions in the Netherlands. The results of this comprehensive study provide a baseline and facilitate trend analyses of Vkorc1 codon 139 mutations and evaluation of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies as these are enrolled in the Netherlands. © 2022 The Dutch Pest and Wildlife. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Keywords: IPM; Mus musculus; Norway rat; Rattus norvegicus; Vkorc1; anticoagulant; house mouse; pest management; rodent control.

Figure 1

Map of the Netherlands divided into two digit postal code areas showing regions where rodents were collected for analysis for mutations in the Vkorc1 gene codon 139 in 2021 (left and middle) and 2012 (right). Numbers in parentheses show the number of animals tested in that region. Area coloration: green, no genetic mutation found; blue, animals with and without genetic mutations; red, all tested animals had mutations. (A) M. musculus (B) R. norvegicus, (C) R. norvegicus 2012, adjusted from Meerburg et al. 2014.