The translational paradigm of nanobiomaterials: Biological chemistry to modern applications

Abstract

Recently nanotechnology has evolved as one of the most revolutionary technologies in the world. It has now become a multi-trillion-dollar business that covers the production of physical, chemical, and biological systems at scales ranging from atomic and molecular levels to a wide range of industrial applications, such as electronics, medicine, and cosmetics. Nanobiomaterials synthesis are promising approaches produced from various biological elements be it plants, bacteria, peptides, nucleic acids, etc. Owing to the better biocompatibility and biological approach of synthesis, they have gained immense attention in the biomedical field. Moreover, due to their scaled-down sized property, nanobiomaterials exhibit remarkable features which make them the potential candidate for different domains of tissue engineering, materials science, pharmacology, biosensors, etc. Miscellaneous characterization techniques have been utilized for the characterization of nanobiomaterials. Currently, the commercial transition of nanotechnology from the research level to the industrial level in the form of nano-scaffolds, implants, and biosensors is stimulating the whole biomedical field starting from bio-mimetic nacres to 3D printing, multiple nanofibers like silk fibers functionalizing as drug delivery systems and in cancer therapy. The contribution of single quantum dot nanoparticles in biological tagging typically in the discipline of genomics and proteomics is noteworthy. This review focuses on the diverse emerging applications of Nanobiomaterials and their mechanistic advancements owing to their physiochemical properties leading to the growth of industries on different biomedical measures. Alongside the implementation of such nanobiomaterials in several drug and gene delivery approaches, optical coding, photodynamic cancer therapy, and vapor sensing have been elaborately discussed in this review. Different parameters based on current challenges and future perspectives are also discussed here.

Keywords: Cancer therapy; Drug delivery; Nanobiomaterial; Translational applications.

Graphical abstract

Fig. 1

Schematic diagram explaining the interdisciplinary industrial applications of nanobiomaterials.

Fig. 2

Diagrammatic representation of various techniques for biomaterials characterization {Figure adapted from Ref. [23]}. (i) TEM still image sequence showing in situ deformation of organic matrix between plates with the time intervals shown in seconds. Adhesion at the wall is strong and failure will occur by deformation of the ligament. The recoiling broken strand shows densification at its base. {Figure adapted from Ref. [24]}. (ii) SEM image of a fractured nacre surface showing the presence of interlocking between platelets of nacre responsible for its mechanical response {Figure adapted from Ref. [25]}. (iii) FE-SEM image of a hydroxyapatite (HAp) {Figure adapted from Ref. [26]} (iv) SEM image showing two screw dislocations and spiral growth associated with three layers in nacre. The center core and corresponding spiral growth domain are oriented counterclockwise connecting layers I and II; the core and corresponding domain at the bottom left are clockwise relating to layers II and III. This shows how the layers are forming simultaneously on top of one another {Figure adapted from Ref. [27]}.

Fig. 3

(a) Chitosan and gelatin particle co-crosslinking with drugs and uptake of nanoparticles. Endosomal formation uptake the nanoparticle and then releases the drug based on specific pH into the cytoplasm where it performs DNA damage and apoptosis of the cancer cell by Caspase-3/7. (b) A step-by-step demonstration of liposome-based drug delivery used for cancer therapy. Image adapted from Ref. [66]. (c) Different types of nano-carriers are employed to perform controlled drug release mechanisms. {Adapted from Ref. [67]}. FADD: Fas-associated protein with death domain; BID:BH3-interacting domain death agonist; SMAC: Second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases; MOMP: Mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization.

Fig. 4

(a) Biomimetic calcium deficient hydroxyapatite foam group Micro-3D reconstruction showing different architecture (shape and size of macropores), nanostructure scanning electron micrograph, implementation of foam scaffolds in bone, and new bone formation. Image adapted from Ref. [94]. (b) Scaffold-based Tissue engineering steps, cell isolation, expansion, scaffold and tissue development, and implantation. {Image modified from Ref. [95]}(c) Nanobiomaterial based (i) Cochlear implant [96]. (ii) Cranial implant [97]. (iii & iv) Hip and hip implant [98]. (v) Knee implant [99]. (vi & vii) Dental implants tissue integration [100] and insertion of implant [101]. (d) Schematics of different scaffolds used in regeneration and repairing of bone, cartilage, and osteochondral defects with the integration of tissue-inducing substances, nucleic acids, stem cells, and bioactive molecules.

Fig. 5

(a) Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved immunotherapeutic for cancer treatment. (b) Main stages of cancer immunity cycles. (c) Examples of multifunctional nanoparticulate systems for cancer immunotherapy that are being studied in vivo; PLGA: Poly (lactide-o-glycolic acid), PBCA: Polybutyl cyanoacrylate, and P(MDS-co-CES)-A triblock polymer. Images a-c are adapted from Ref. [163].

Fig. 6

(a) Boron Nitride hollow nanospheres (BNS) initiate apoptosis and necrosis by the Caspase-3/7 pathway (Shown above in Fig. 2 (a)) and Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, respectively. (b) Biodegradable boron nitride nanoparticles lead to cancer cell death. The use of the thermal neutron approach leads to DNA, mitochondria, and cell organelle damage. (c)Iron-based nanoparticles cause tumor cell death by converting H₂O₂ to OH^. Free radicals in Fenton chemical process. The release of excessive free radicals leads to DNA and mitochondrial damage. {Concept generated from Refs. [192,203]}.

Fig. 7

Performance level of the sensor system. (a) All vapors are detectable by a sensor (Sensitive to all vapors, specific family, and a specific family member of vapors). (b) Sensor performance accuracy is degraded by the presence of variable gaseous interference hence creating complications in sensor measurement. (c) Sensor performance accuracy is reduced by temperature fluctuation and uncontrolled operating conditions. (d) For principal-components analysis (PCA) exemplary processing and PCA-based pattern recognition, three simulated Gaussian curves with varied height and width. The basic features and key points on which the PCA-based pattern recognition system works are: (a) Three stimulated Gaussian curves with variable height and width for PCA exemplary processing. (b) Scores plot of a PCA model, based on the data from the three stimulated Gaussian curves. The general scenarios explained in the figure revolve around sensitivity and selectivity, and how it varies in all three situations. (PC1, PC2, and PC3 denote principal components 1, 2, and 3, respectively) (e) A principal-components analysis model scores plot based on data from three generated Gaussian curves. Principal-components analysis score plot with three different scenarios according to sensitivity and selectivity (f–h): (f) good selectivity and poor sensitivity, (g) good sensitivity and bad selectivity, and (h) good selectivity and good sensitivity. (a–h) images are adapted from Ref. [204] (i–l) examples of transducers. (i) Radiant energy transduction (j) mechanical energy transduction. Adapted from Ref. [204] (i–l) examples of transducers. (i) Radiant energy transduction (j) mechanical energy transduction. Adapted from Ref. [220] (k) electrical energy transduction (l) thermal energy transduction. {Adapted from Ref. [221]}.

Fig. 8

(a) Fabricated nanoparticles with various magnetic core coatings for surface modifications. (b) Chitosan shell on magnetic core and homogenously dispersed magnetic multi-cores in chitosan. (c) Magnetic drug targeting principle (RES: reticuloendothelial system). (d) Biomedical applications of the magnetic nanoparticle. (a–d) images adapted from Ref. [250] (e) Demonstrating magnetic nanoparticle preparation, characterization methods, and removal mechanism in wastewater treatment. Image adapted from Ref. [226].