Recent advances in airborne pathogen detection using optical and electrochemical biosensors

Abstract

The world is currently facing an adverse condition due to the pandemic of airborne pathogen SARS-CoV-2. Prevention is better than cure; thus, the rapid detection of airborne pathogens is necessary because it can reduce outbreaks and save many lives. Considering the immense role of diverse detection techniques for airborne pathogens, proper summarization of these techniques would be beneficial for humans. Hence, this review explores and summarizes emerging techniques, such as optical and electrochemical biosensors used for detecting airborne bacteria (Bacillus anthracis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pneumoniae) and viruses (Influenza A, Avian influenza, Norovirus, and SARS-CoV-2). Significantly, the first section briefly focuses on various diagnostic modalities applied toward airborne pathogen detection. Next, the fabricated optical biosensors using various transducer materials involved in colorimetric and fluorescence strategies for infectious pathogen detection are extensively discussed. The third section is well documented based on electrochemical biosensors for airborne pathogen detection by differential pulse voltammetry, cyclic voltammetry, square-wave voltammetry, amperometry, and impedance spectroscopy. The unique pros and cons of these modalities and their future perspectives are addressed in the fourth and fifth sections. Overall, this review inspected 171 research articles published in the last decade and persuaded the importance of optical and electrochemical biosensors for airborne pathogen detection.

Keywords: Electrical signal; Infectious disease; Point of care test; Transducer; Visual inspection.

Graphical abstract

Fig. 1

Schematic diagram showing optical and electrochemical biosensors following various mechanisms for airborne pathogen detection.

Fig. 2

The charts display the total number of publications per year towards airborne pathogen detection using (A) optical biosensors, (B) electrochemical biosensors, and (C) overall contribution of optical and electrochemical biosensors for airborne pathogen detection. (Data collected from the scifinder-n.cas.org on January 01, 2022, using “colorimetric biosensors”, “electrochemical biosensors”, and “airborne pathogen” as keywords).

Fig. 3

Schematic illustration of fluorescence-sensing platform for anthrax biomarker (DPA) detection. (a) Fabrication of R6H derivative-based fluorescent probe using chitosan and EDTA–Eu³⁺ complex. (b) The gradual increase of the probe's emission upon the addition of DPA. Reproduced from the published article [54].

Fig. 4

(a) Schematic representation for naked-eye detection of S. aureus using AuNPs-probe. Reproduced from the published article [65]. (b) Schematic presentation of a fluorescent immunoassay for S. aureus detection. Reproduced from the published article [73].

Fig. 5

(a) Schematic showing the detection of H3N2 virus based on the colorimetric peroxidase-like activity of Au-CNTs. Reproduced from the published article [25]. (b) The AuNPs/MBs-based immunoassay for the colorimetric detection of H7N9. Reproduced from the published article [87].

Fig. 6

(a) Detection of the NoV-based on the effective peroxidase-like activity using the release of V₂O₅ NPs from the captured liposomes. Reproduced from the published article [98]. (b) Schematic showing AuNP/MNP–NC–based sandwich immunoassay for NoV detection using the fluorescence strategy. Reproduced from the published article [100].

Fig. 7

(a) Proposed electrochemical immunosensor for the detection of B. anthracis Sap based on the generation of the redox peaks upon the conversion of the 4-AP to 4-quinine imine. Reproduced from the published article [116]. (b) Target MPT64 sandwiched between the PEI@MOF-modified electrode and the tracer label. TOBA developed the electrical signal in the presence of target bacteria. Reproduced from the published article [123]. (c) Schematic showing a label-free electrochemical immunosensor using PDDA, PSS, and AuNR on the GCE for S. aureus detection. Reproduced from the published article [136].

Fig. 8

(a) Schematic fabrication of electrochemical biosensor using Cys-linked probe for H1N1 detection. Reproduced from the published article [149]. (b) Schematic representation for Norovirus detection using a WS₂NF/AuNP-peptide electrochemical biosensor. Reproduced from the published article [161]. (c) Process of super sandwich biosensor for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 using a smartphone. Reproduced from the published article [170].