Emerging 0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D nanostructures for efficient point-of-care biosensing

Abstract

The recent COVID-19 infection outbreak has raised the demand for rapid, highly sensitive POC biosensing technology for intelligent health and wellness. In this direction, efforts are being made to explore high-performance nano-systems for developing novel sensing technologies capable of functioning at point-of-care (POC) applications for quick diagnosis, data acquisition, and disease management. A combination of nanostructures [i.e., 0D (nanoparticles & quantum dots), 1D (nanorods, nanofibers, nanopillars, & nanowires), 2D (nanosheets, nanoplates, nanopores) & 3D nanomaterials (nanocomposites and complex hierarchical structures)], biosensing prototype, and micro-electronics makes biosensing suitable for early diagnosis, detection & prevention of life-threatening diseases. However, a knowledge gap associated with the potential of 0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D nanostructures for the design and development of efficient POC sensing is yet to be explored carefully and critically. With this focus, this review highlights the latest engineered 0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D nanomaterials for developing next-generation miniaturized, portable POC biosensors development to achieve high sensitivity with potential integration with the internet of medical things (IoMT, for miniaturization and data collection, security, and sharing), artificial intelligence (AI, for desired analytics), etc. for better diagnosis and disease management at the personalized level.

Keywords: 0D to 3D nanomaterials; Biosensors; Efficient diagnostics; Personalized health management; Point-of-care testing; Wearable.

Fig. 1

Illustration of 0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D nanomaterial-based POC biosensing devices (adopted from Iannazzo et al., 2021; Panikar et al., 2020; Nami et al., 2022; Bai et al., 2017; Qiao et al., 2018; Zhang and Yan., 2019; Kannan et al., 2017).

Fig. 2

Left - different types of POC devices with examples (left), and right - different target product profiles (TPP), users, and settings/levels within the spectrum of POC testing (Reprinted from Pai et al., 2012).

Fig. 3

Classification of 0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D nanostructures (Goh et al., 2020).

Fig. 4

(a) Schematic representation of AuNP-based electrochemical biosensor for COVID detection (Reprinted from (Roberts et al., 2021b) with copyright permission for figure obtained from Elsevier). (b) Schematic representation of paper-based immunological sensor for Prostate-specific antigen of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NP) used for VOC detection using ZnO sensor (Reprinted from Hassan et al., 2021 with copyright permission for figure obtained from Elsevier). (c) Use of GQDs in various detection systems including intracellular cancer cells sensors, immunosensors, nucleic acid-based sensors, and circulating tumor cells sensors (Reprinted from Iannazzo et al., 2021). (d) Schematic representation of anti-fouling SERS-based immunosensor for POC detection of the B7-H6 tumor biomarker in cervical cancer patient serum (Reprinted from Panikar et al., 2020 with copyright permission for figure obtained from Elsevier).

Fig. 5

(a) Illustration of silicon nanowire-based biosensor for the Rapid Screen for Antiviral T-Cell Immunity (Reprinted from Nami et al., 2022 with copyright permission for figure obtained from Wiley) (b) Synthesized CuONi showing the hierarchical chemical reaction for the glucose detection schematic (Reprinted from Bai et al., 2017 with copyright permission for figure obtained from Elsevier). (c) The tongue-depressor biosensor fabrication and schematic representation of the device (Reprinted from Luo et al., 2019). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

Fig. 6

(a) Schematics and working of fabricated graphene-based GraFET biosensor for detection of SARS-CoV-2. (b) Glucose detection via synthesized AuNP@MoS2-QDs nanocomposites (Reprinted from Vinita et al., 2018 with copyright permission for Fig. obtained from Elsevier). (c) Borophene-based wearable POC biosensor (Reprinted from Kumar Sharma et al., 2022 with copyright permission for figure obtained from Elsevier) (d) Schematic representation of the gold nanoparticles and reduced graphene oxide-based immuno-electrode for immunological sensing applications (Reprinted from Verma et al., 2017). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

Fig. 7

(a) Illustration of aptamer probes immobilized on the IO structured magnetic hydrogel barcodes. The real images of the barcode spheres were mobilized with the magnet. (Reprinted from Xu et al., 2018 with copyright permission for figure obtained from Elsevier). (b) Different MAFs synthesis, development of MAFs@QDs-PVP hydrogel complex, HDS coupled with the technology of digital sensing (Reprinted from J. Zhang et al., 2022).

Fig. 8

Recently developed advanced wearables and platforms (adapted from Bandodkar et al., 2019; Ciui et al., 2018; Gao et al., 2016; García-Carmona et al., 2019; Jia et al., 2013; Kagie et al., 2008; Kim et al., 2015; Lv et al., 2018; Min et al., 2021; Pal et al., 2018; Rose et al., 2014; Sempionatto et al., 2020, 2017; Yang et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2020).

Fig. 9

Schematic representation of COVID-19 status and recommendations for the better development of COVID sensing platforms (Reprinted from Kaushik and Mostafavi, 2022).

Fig. 10

Schematic of the nano-enabled biosensing prototype for efficient diagnosis (Reprinted from Kaushik et al., 2021a).