Identifying geographical inequalities of maternal care utilization in Ethiopia: a Spatio-temporal analysis from 2005 to 2019

Abstract

Introduction: Inequalities in maternal care utilization pose a significant threat to maternal health programs. This study aimed to describe and explain the spatial variation in maternal care utilization among pregnant women in Ethiopia. Accordingly, this study focuses on identifying hotspots of underutilization and mapping maternal care utilization, as well as identifying predictors of spatial clustering in maternal care utilization.

Methods: We evaluated three key indicators of maternal care utilization: pregnant women who received no antenatal care (ANC) service from a skilled provider, utilization of four or more ANC visits, and births attended in a health facility, based the Ethiopian National Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS5) to 2019. Spatial autocorrelation analysis was used to measure whether maternal care utilization was dispersed, clustered, or randomly distributed in the study area. Getis-Ord Gi statistics examined how Spatio-temporal variations differed through the study location and ordinary Kriging interpolation predicted maternal care utilization in the unsampled areas. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression was used to identify predictors of geographic variation, and geographically weighted regression (GWR) examined the spatial variability relationships between maternal care utilization and selected predictors.

Result: A total of 26,702 pregnant women were included, maternal care utilization varies geographically across surveys. Overall, statistically significant low maternal care utilization hotspots were identified in the Somali region. Low hotspot areas were also identified in northern Ethiopia, stretching into the Amhara, Afar, and Beneshangul-Gumuz regions; and the southern part of Ethiopia and the Gambella region. Spatial regression analysis revealed that geographical variations in maternal care utilization indicators were commonly explained by the number of under-five children, the wealth index, and media access. In addition, the mother's educational status significantly explained pregnant women, received no ANC service and utilized ANC service four or more times. Whereas, the age of a mother at first birth was a spatial predictor of pregnant who received no ANC service from a skilled provider.

Conclusion: In Ethiopia, it is vital to plan to combat maternal care inequalities in a manner suitable for the district-specific variations. Predictors of geographical variation identified during spatial regression analysis can inform efforts to achieve geographical equity in maternal care utilization.

Keywords: ANC utilization; Antenatal care (ANC); Birth attended in a health facility; Ethiopian demographic and Health Survey (EDHS); Geographically weighted regression (GWR); Maternal care utilization; Spatial analysis.

Fig. 1

Hotspot analysis of pregnant who received no antenatal care(ANC) service from a skilled provider in Ethiopia: 2005 (A), 2011 (B), 2016 (C), and 2019 (D)

Fig. 2

Hotspot analysis of utilization of four or more antenatal care (ANC) visit among pregnant women in Ethiopia: 2005 (A), 2011 (B), 2016 (C), and 2019 (D)

Fig. 3

Hotspot analysis of birth attended in a health facility in Ethiopia: 2005 (A), 2011 (B), 2016 (C), and 2019 (D)

Fig. 4

Spatial Interpolation of pregnant who received no antenatal care(ANC) service from a skilled provider in Ethiopia: 2005 (A), 2011 (B), 2016 (C), and 2019 (D)

Fig. 5

Spatial Interpolation of utilization of four or more antenatal care (ANC) visit among pregnant women in Ethiopia: 2005 (A), 2011 (B), 2016 (C), and 2019 (D)

Fig. 6

Spatial Interpolation of birth attended in a health facility in Ethiopia: 2005 (A), 2011 (B), 2016 (C), and 2019 (D)

Fig. 7

Geographically weighted regression coefficient estimates for predictors of pregnant who received no antenatal care(ANC) service from a skilled provider in Ethiopia

Fig. 8

Geographically weighted regression coefficient estimates for predictors of utilization of four or more antenatal care (ANC) visit among pregnant women in Ethiopia

Fig. 9

Geographically weighted regression coefficient estimates for predictors of birth attended in a health facility in Ethiopia