Electrolyzed-Reduced Water: Review I. Molecular Hydrogen Is the Exclusive Agent Responsible for the Therapeutic Effects

Abstract

Numerous benefits have been attributed to alkaline-electrolyzed-reduced water (ERW). Sometimes these claims are associated with easily debunked concepts. The observed benefits have been conjectured to be due to the intrinsic properties of ERW (e.g., negative oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), alkaline pH, H₂ gas), as well enigmatic characteristics (e.g., altered water structure, microclusters, free electrons, active hydrogen, mineral hydrides). The associated pseudoscientific marketing has contributed to the reluctance of mainstream science to accept ERW as having biological effects. Finally, through many in vitro and in vivo studies, each one of these propositions was examined and refuted one-by-one until it was conclusively demonstrated that H₂ was the exclusive agent responsible for both the negative ORP and the observed therapeutic effects of ERW. This article briefly apprised the history of ERW and comprehensively reviewed the sequential research demonstrating the importance of H₂. We illustrated that the effects of ERW could be readily explained by the known biological effects of H₂ and by utilizing conventional chemistry without requiring any metaphysical conjecture (e.g., microclustering, free electrons, etc.) or reliance on implausible notions (e.g., alkaline water neutralizes acidic waste). The H₂ concentration of ERW should be measured to ensure it is comparable to those used in clinical studies.

Keywords: alkali ion water; alkaline water; alkaline-ionized water; alkaline-reduced water; electrolyzed–reduced water; functional water; hydrogen water; ionized water.

Figure 1

Changes in ORP as a function of either pH (A) or H₂ concentration (B). Temperature held constant at 25 °C. Note that although the concentration of H₂ at the standard ambient temperature and pressure is 1.6 mg/L, it may be higher than this at lower temperatures and/or higher pressures accordingly to Henry’s law (C = P/K_H; C is concentration, P is pressure, and K_H is Henry’s solubility constant for the specific gas at a given temperature).

Figure 2

A hypothetical symbolic representation of relative benefits from various water conditions. ERW or NaOH pH 10 water provides no benefit compared to baseline with a downward trend. A negative ORP from the presence of a low level of H₂ exerts only a positive beneficial trend. However, at higher H₂ concentrations in ERW or with bubbled H₂, the therapeutic threshold is passed, and there is a dose-dependent H₂ benefit.

Figure 3

The annual number of ERW articles with or without hydrogen in the title or abstract from 1948 to 2022. ERW articles are defined as having “alkaline (ionized) water” or “electrolyzed reduced water” in the title. The presence or absence of “hydrogen” was searched for either in the title or abstract. The ratio of ERW articles without hydrogen to the total number of ERW articles represents an average of 5 years.