Mechanisms of Antifungal Properties of Metal Nanoparticles

Abstract

The appearance of resistant species of fungi to the existent antimycotics is challenging for the scientific community. One emergent technology is the application of nanotechnology to develop novel antifungal agents. Metal nanoparticles (NPs) have shown promising results as an alternative to classical antimycotics. This review summarizes and discusses the antifungal mechanisms of metal NPs, including combinations with other antimycotics, covering the period from 2005 to 2022. These mechanisms include but are not limited to the generation of toxic oxygen species and their cellular target, the effect of the cell wall damage and the hyphae and spores, and the mechanisms of defense implied by the fungal cell. Lastly, a description of the impact of NPs on the transcriptomic and proteomic profiles is discussed.

Keywords: ROS; antifungal resistance; fungi; gene regulation; mechanism of defense; metals; nanoparticles; proteomics; transcriptomics.

Figure 1

Fungal cell wall organization and membrane.

Figure 2

Glucan structure shows the (A) β-1,6 linkages and (B) β-1,3 linkages.

Figure 3

Chitin structure of polymerized N-acetylglucosamine monomers with (A) β-1,4 linkages.

Figure 4

Different types of metallic NPs developed against fungi.

Figure 5

NPs mechanisms at the cellular level that lead to fungal cell damage include (A) ROS-inducing lipid peroxidation, (B) adsorption embedment and breakage of cell wall and membrane, (C) pit and pore formation, (D) leakage, releasing DNA and organelles from the cell, (E) ion release, (F) DNA intercalation, causing condensation and fragmentation, (G) gene expression changes, (H) ROS generation, (I) Mitochondrial release of cytochrome C into the cytosol, increasing metacaspase levels, leading to apoptosis cascade, (J) ribosome depolymerization, and (K) adsorption onto EPS, inhibiting biofilm formation.

Figure 6

Potential application of NPs with antifungal activity to different industries.