Layered habitats: An evolutionary model for present-day recreational needs

Abstract

Urbanisation and lifestyle-related illnesses increase globally. This highlights the need to shape modern human habitats to support basic recreational needs, promoting such things as physical activity and restoration of high stress levels and cognitive fatigue. Previous research suggests eight perceived qualities in the outdoor environment, described as eight perceived sensory dimensions, as universally meaningful to people in this regard. However quite extensively studied in relation to various health and wellbeing outcomes, human sensitivity and appreciation for these qualities has not yet been explicitly analysed from an evolutionary perspective. This paper investigates their possible evolutionary roots and suggests an order for their development. This is linked with empirical findings on their relative capacity to support restoration of stress and cognitive fatigue. Qualities of earlier origin are suggested to correspond to older, more fundamental adaptations. Each subsequently developed quality implies an increased complexity of our environmental relations, associated with higher demands on more recently developed capacities. The proposed model thus links the more restorative Serene, Sheltered, Natural, and Cohesive perceived sensory dimensions with earlier stages of our development while the more demanding Diverse, Open, Cultural, and Social qualities are associated with more recent transitions. It might be of relevance when shaping modern human habitats from a health-promoting perspective, and have applications in the planning and design of, e.g., health care settings, rehabilitation gardens, urban green areas, recreational forests or other similar outdoor environments.

Keywords: cultural ecosystem services; evolutionary aesthetics; health and wellbeing; human habitats; landscape preferences; outdoor recreation; perceived sensory dimensions; restoration.

Figure 1

Eight PSDs along four axes of opposing qualities (Stoltz and Grahn, 2021). The closer together in the model, the more shared associations between qualities. Adjacent qualities thus often reinforce each other, while opposing qualities might weaken or contradict each other.

Figure 2

Examples of PSDs and their possible developmental roots. (A) Fundamental aspects of how we perceive and interact with the Natural world can be traced to adaptations to an arboreal life. (B) A human affinity for extended Cohesive settings could stem from adaptations to a life on the forest floor. (C) Adaptations to structural and biological diversity in forest edge zones might form the evolutionary basis for the Diverse PSD. (D) The Open PSD, with expanded vistas and plenty of room to roam, could reflect adaptions to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle in increasingly open settings. (E) The Cultural PSD, characterised by the distinct traces of human creative efforts, primarily reflects cultural evolution and adaptations to increasingly human-altered environments. (F) Although our highly social nature might reflect ancient primate traits, it is through the relatively recent urbanisation that Social affordances have increased to a previously unprecedented degree. (Photos by the author).

Figure 3

Suggested order (bottom to top) and phase associated with the development of each perceived sensory dimension (PSD). The increased complexity of our environmental relations over time is reflected in a shifted bias towards Type 2 cognition and sympathetic responses. (Time indications are estimates based on suggestions in the literature).

Figure 4

Eight perceived sensory dimensions of different development and restorative influence. As present-day perceived qualities and design principles they are understood along four axes of opposing qualities, connected with horizontal lines following the PSD model (Figure 1). (Schematic illustration. Time and species indications are estimations based on suggestions in the literature).

Figure A1

Support for three adjacent qualities in the PSD model has been suggested as a simple heuristic for strong recreational function, from a perceived qualities perspective. This gives eight synergetic combinations of three PSDs each (Clusters 1–8).

Figure A2

A sensory opportunity spectrum (SOS) with eight PSD combinations (Cluster 1–8) supporting different stages of restoration, roughly mapped unto four phases of the restorative process suggested by Grahn et al. (2010).