Gender Role Discrepancy Stress and COVID-19 Prevention Behaviors Among Men in the United States

Abstract

Purpose: To examine the associations between gender role discrepancy (non-conformity to socially prescribed masculine gender role norms) and discrepancy stress (distress arising from this discrepancy) on COVID-19 prevention behaviors among men, and the potential moderating effects of race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, and income on these relationships.

Design: A national online survey was conducted between May and June 2021.

Setting: The United States.

Subjects: 749 adult men residing in the United States.

Measures: A scale measured gender role discrepancy and discrepancy stress. COVID-19 prevention outcomes were constructed and included self-reported vaccination status/intentions, social distancing, mask-wearing, and hand-sanitizing.

Analysis: Multivariate generalized linear models were performed in SPSS.

Results: Gender role discrepancy associated with greater odds of vaccination (AOR = 1.35, 95% CI = 1.02-1.78, P = .04), while discrepancy stress associated with lower odds of vaccination (AOR = .48, 95% CI = .35-.68, P < 0. 001) and mask-wearing (AOR = .54, 95% CI = .37-.79, P = .001) for men overall. Discrepancy stress's negative effect on specific COVID-19 prevention behaviors was only apparent or was amplified for men in lower income brackets (vaccination, social distancing, mask-wearing), racial/ethnic minority men (vaccination), and sexual minority men (social distancing).

Conclusion: This study demonstrates that gender role discrepancy stress negatively affects men's engagement in COVID-19 prevention, particularly for men in marginalized populations.

Keywords: COVID-19; health behavior; masculinity; men.

Figure 1.

Vaccination Interactions. Graph 1: The interaction between race/ethnicity and gender role discrepancy stress on vaccination status. Graph 2: The interaction between income and gender role discrepancy stress on vaccination status. The interactions demonstrate a negative effect of gender role discrepancy stress on the odds of being/intending to be vaccinated for racial/ethnic minority men and men from lower income brackets. GRDS = gender role discrepancy stress; Low GRDS = one standard deviation below the mean or lower on the GRDS scale; Moderate GRDS = Within one standard deviation of the GRDS mean; High GRDS = one standard deviation above the mean or higher on the GRDS scale. Models control for the following covariates: age, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, marital status, education, income, political conservatism, and geographic region.

Figure 2.

Social Distancing Interactions. Graph 1: The interaction between sexual orientation and gender role discrepancy stress on social distancing. Graph 2: The interaction between income and gender role discrepancy stress on social distancing. The interactions demonstrate a negative effect of gender role discrepancy stress on social distancing for gay/bisexual men and men from lower income brackets, but a reverse effect for men in higher income bracket (i.e., GRDS positively associated with social distancing). GRDS = gender role discrepancy stress; Low GRDS = one standard deviation below the mean or lower on the GRDS scale; Moderate GRDS = Within one standard deviation of the GRDS mean; High GRDS = one standard deviation above the mean or higher on the GRDS scale. Models control for the following covariates: age, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, marital status, education, income, political conservatism, and geographic region.

Figure 3.

Mask-Wearing Interaction. The interaction between income gender role discrepancy stress on mask-wearing. The interaction demonstrates a negative effect of gender role discrepancy stress on mask-wearing for men from lower income brackets. The model controls for the following covariates: age, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, marital status, education, income, political conservatism, and geographic region.