Interoceptive differences in elite sprint and long-distance runners: A multidimensional investigation

Abstract

Interoception, the process of detecting and interpreting bodily sensations, may facilitate self-regulation and thereby play a crucial role in achieving elite performance in competitive sports. However, there is a lack of research conducted in world-class athletes. In the present research, two studies examined self-reported (interoceptive sensibility) and behavioural (interoceptive accuracy) interoception in elite (top 100 ranking) sprint and long-distance runners, and non-athletes. Study 1 used the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness Questionnaire. Sprinters reported having better regulation of attention to internal sensations, greater emotional awareness, better self-regulation, and reported a greater propensity to listen to their body for insight, than distance runners. Compared to non-athletes, sprinters and distance runners had more bodily trust, attention regulation, and self-regualtion. Additionally, elite athletes reported lower emotional awareness, self-regulation, and body listening. Study 2 examined cardioception using two tasks: The Heartbeat Counting Task, and The Heartbeat Detection Task. Elite and non-elite runners performed the tasks under two conditions; in silence, and whilst listening to pre-recorded crowd noise that simulated the live sounds of spectators during a sporting event. Sprinters and distance runners were able to maintain heartbeat detection accuracy when distracted, whereas non-athletes could not. Across both tasks, compared to non-athletes, sprinters and distance runners were more confident than non-athletes in their interoceptive percept. Additionally, elite athletes compared to non-elite athletes were less accurate when counting their heartbeat and were characterised by a higher interoceptive prediction error. Athletic populations have altered interoceptive abilities.

Fig 1. Positive feedback loop between physical activity and interoception.

Note. This model shows the reciprocal association between acute and chronic physical activity and interoceptive processes. Physical activity increasing the salience of interoceptive signals enhancing interoceptive accuracy and attention. Accurate internal models facilitate allostasis and minimise prediction error during subsequent exertion.

Fig 2. Nested design used in Study 1 and Study 2.

Fig 3. Raincloud plots showing interoceptive sensibility in sprinters, long-distance runners, and non-athletes.

Note. Data are adjusted means (after adjusting for anxiety, depression, gender, and age).

Fig 4. Raincloud plot showing heartbeat counting accuracy for elite and non-elite athletes.

Note. Data are means after adjusting for depression, anxiety, habitual exercise, and HR.

Fig 5. Raincloud plot showing heartbeat detection accuracy in athletes and non-athletes.

Note. Data are means after adjusting for depression, anxiety, habitual exercise, and HR. HBD–heartbeat detection.

Fig 6. Interoceptive processing in response to high and low intensity exercise.

Note. This model shows the role of exercise intensity in modulating the interaction between ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’ interoceptive processes. During high intensity exercise interoceptive signals dominate perception such that it becomes more difficult to engage ‘top-down’ cognitive resources and predict future interoceptive states. Conversely, when exercise intensity is low, ‘top-down’ cognitive strategies are easier to maintain and future interoceptive states are easier to predict.