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. 2023 Feb 2;20(3):2687.
doi: 10.3390/ijerph20032687.

Potentially Harmful Elements Associated with Dust of Mosques: Pollution Status, Sources, and Human Health Risks

Bassam Tawabini  1 , Mubarak Al-Enazi  1 , Mansour A Alghamdi  2 , Ashraf Farahat  3 , Ahsan M Shemsi  4 , Marwan Y Al Sharif  2 , Mamdouh I Khoder  5
Affiliations

Potentially Harmful Elements Associated with Dust of Mosques: Pollution Status, Sources, and Human Health Risks

Bassam Tawabini et al. Int J Environ Res Public Health. .

Abstract

Potentially harmful elements (PHEs) associated with dust generated from anthropogenic sources can be transported into mosques and deposited on the filters of the air-conditioners (AC); thereby, children and adults are exposed to such PHEs while visiting mosques. Data dealing with the assessment of PHEs pollution and its human health risk in mosques dust in Saudi Arabia are scarce. Therefore, this work aims to examine the levels and pollution status of PHEs in AC filter dust (ACFD) of mosques and their associated human health risk in three Saudi cities: Jubail, Jeddah, and Dammam metropolitan. A similar concentration pattern of PHEs is observed in three cities' mosques with noticeably higher concentrations than both global crustal and local background values for Zn, Cu, Pb, As, and Cd only. Except for Fe, Al, and Mn, the highest PHEs concentrations were found in Jeddah (1407 mg/kg), followed by Dammam (1239 mg/kg) and Jubail (1103 mg/kg). High PHEs' concentrations were also recorded in mosques located near workshops and suburban areas compared to urban areas. Based on the spatial pattern, enrichment factor, geo-accumulation index, pollution load index, and ecological risk values, Jubail, Jeddah, and Dammam have shown moderate pollution levels of Cd, As, Pb, and Zn. On the other hand, Cu. Zn, Cu, Cr, Pb, Ni, As, and Cd had degrees of enrichment levels that varied from significantly enriched to extremely highly enriched in the ACFD of the three cities. Heavy pollution is found in Jubail, which posed a higher potential ecological risk than in Jeddah and Dammam. Cd presents the highest ecological risk factors (ER) in the three cities. Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks for children and adults follow the order: Jeddah > Dammam > Jubail, and the ingestion pathway was the main route for exposure. Carcinogenic and con-carcinogenic risks in the mosques of the various studied cities were generally within the acceptable range.

Keywords: AC filters; Saudi Arabia; mosques; particulate matter; trace elements.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Map of Saudi Arabia illustrating the cities of Jeddah, Jubail, and Dammam.
Figure 2
Figure 2
The concentrations of PHEs in ACFD of mosques located in different cities are based on function areas (urban areas-UA; suburban areas-SA; workshop areas-WSA).
Figure 2
Figure 2
The concentrations of PHEs in ACFD of mosques located in different cities are based on function areas (urban areas-UA; suburban areas-SA; workshop areas-WSA).
Figure 3
Figure 3
Relative contribution (%) of each PHE to ∑PHEs concentrations in ACFD of mosques located in different functional areas of Jubail and Jeddah cities and Dammam metropolitan area (A), and in ACFD of Jubail, Jeddah and Dammam metropolitan area mosques (B).
Figure 3
Figure 3
Relative contribution (%) of each PHE to ∑PHEs concentrations in ACFD of mosques located in different functional areas of Jubail and Jeddah cities and Dammam metropolitan area (A), and in ACFD of Jubail, Jeddah and Dammam metropolitan area mosques (B).
Figure 4
Figure 4
Contamination factor (Cf), degree of contamination (Cd), pollution load index (PLI), and geo-accumulation index (Igeo) of PHEs in ACFD of Jubail, Dammam metropolitan, and Jeddah mosques: Based on the global crustal data (A) and local background soil data (B).
Figure 4
Figure 4
Contamination factor (Cf), degree of contamination (Cd), pollution load index (PLI), and geo-accumulation index (Igeo) of PHEs in ACFD of Jubail, Dammam metropolitan, and Jeddah mosques: Based on the global crustal data (A) and local background soil data (B).
Figure 5
Figure 5
Enrichment factors analysis (EFs) of PHEs in ACFD of Jubail, Dammam metropolitan, and Jeddah mosques.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Variation of potential ecological risks for PHEs in ACFD of Jubail, Dammam metropolitan, and Jeddah mosques.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Relative contribution of the individual PHE hazard index (HI) to ∑HI for total PHEs in Jubail, Dammam metropolitan, and Jeddah mosques for children and adults.
Figure 8
Figure 8
Relative contribution of the individual PHE cancer risk (CR) to ∑CR for total PHEs in Jubail, Dammam metropolitan, and Jeddah mosques for children and adults.
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