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. 2023 Jan 25;9(2):e13234.
doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13234. eCollection 2023 Feb.

Pyrolysis of Canarium schweinfurthii hard-shell: Thermochemical characterisation and pyrolytic kinetics studies

Kabir Garba  1 , Isah Yakub Mohammed  1 , Yusuf Makarfi Isa  2 , Lawan Garba Abubakar  3 , Yousif Abdalla Abakr  4 , Bassim H Hameed  5
Affiliations

Pyrolysis of Canarium schweinfurthii hard-shell: Thermochemical characterisation and pyrolytic kinetics studies

Kabir Garba et al. Heliyon. .

Abstract

Canarium schweinfurthii fruit used in food and cosmetics produces waste nuts with a hard shell (hard-shell) and kernel. The hard-shell contained lignin and holocellulose, besides 51.99 wt% carbon, 6.0 wt% hydrogen, 41.68 wt% oxygen, and 70.97 wt% volatile matter. Therefore, this study commenced thermochemical investigations on the hard-shell through extensive intermediate pyrolysis and kinetic studies. During the active stage of thermogravimetric pyrolysis, the hard-shell lost a maximum of 56.45 wt%, and the activation energies obtained by the Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose, Flynn-Wall-Ozawa, and Starink methods were 223, 221 and 217 kJ/mol, respectively. The Flynn-Wall-Ozawa method depicted the degradation process accurately, where the Coat-Redfern method's contraction and diffusion mechanisms governed the pyrolysis reactions at activation energies of 16.62 kJ/mol and 38.83 kJ/mol, respectively. The pyrolysis process produced 25 wt% biochar and 25 wt% bio-oil under optimum conditions. The calorific values of the bio-oils with 6.81-7.11 wt% hydrogen and 68.01-71.12 wt% carbon was 26.32-27.83 MJ/kg, with phenolics and n-hexadecanoic and oleic acids as major compounds. Biochar, by contrast, has a high carbon content of 75.11-79.32 wt% and calorific values of 25.45-28.61 MJ/kg. These properties assert the biochar and bio-oils among viable bioenergy sources.

Keywords: Bio-oil; Biochar; Canarium schweinfurthii hard-shell; Kinetics; Pyrolysis; Thermogravimetric analysis.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
FTIR spectra of functional groups of Canarium schweinfurthii hard-shell and its corresponding biochar produced at 550 °C pyrolysis temperature.
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
(a) TG curves and (b) DTG curves for pyrolysis of Canarium schweinfurthii hard-shell at different heating rates.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Extent of conversion for pyrolysis of Canarium schweinfurthii hard-shell at different temperatures.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Effect of (a) temperature, (b) time and (c) heating rate on product yield from pyrolysis of Canarium schweinfurthii hard-shell.
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
FTIR spectrum of bio-oil sample from pyrolysis of Canarium schweinfurthii hard-shell.
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
Relative yield of the categories of tentative compounds in bio-oils from pyrolysis of CS-hard-shell.
Fig. 7
Fig. 7
(a) FWO, (b) KAS and (c) Starink linear plots.
Fig. 8
Fig. 8
Variation of apparent activation energy with conversion for pyrolysis of Canarium schweinfurthii hard-shell from FWO, KAS and Starink methods.
Fig. 9
Fig. 9
Variation of (a) ΔH, (b) ΔG and (c) ΔS with extent of conversion for pyrolysis of Canarium schweinfurthii hard-shell.
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