The Effects of Tree Nut and Peanut Consumption on Energy Compensation and Energy Expenditure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Abstract

Nut consumption is not associated with a higher body weight, and potential energy-regulating mechanisms may include a reduced subsequent energy intake and increased EE. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of tree nut and peanut consumption on energy intake, compensation, and expenditure. PubMed, MEDLINE, CINAHL, Cochrane, and Embase databases were searched from inception to June 2, 2021. Human studies with adults aged ≥18 y older were included. Energy intake and compensation studies were restricted to acute effects (intervention duration of ≤24 h), whereas intervention duration was not limited for EE studies. Random effects meta-analyses were conducted to explore weighted mean differences in REE. Twenty-eight articles from 27 studies (16 energy intake studies, 10 EE studies, and 1 study investigating both) with 1121 participants were included in this review, with a variety of nut types addressed (almonds, Brazil nuts, cashews, chestnuts, hazelnuts, peanuts, pistachios, walnuts, and mixed nuts). Energy compensation occurred after nut-containing loads (range: -280.5% to +176.4%) and the degree of compensation varied depending on the form (whole and chopped) and how they were consumed (alone and within a meal). The meta-analyses identified a nonsignificant increase in REE associated with nut consumption (weighted mean difference: 28.6 kcal/d; 95% CI: -10.7, 67.8 kcal/d). This study provided support for energy compensation as a potential mechanism for a lack of association between nut consumption and body weight, whereas no evidence was found for EE as an energy-regulating mechanism of nuts. This review was registered at PROSPERO as CRD42021252292.

Keywords: energy compensation; energy expenditure; energy intake; meta-analysis; nuts; peanuts; systematic review; tree nuts.

FIGURE 1

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses flow diagram of the study selection protocol.

FIGURE 2

Energy compensation¹ (%) of nut interventions categorized into subgroups based on consumption as a snack or within a meal, and sorted by nut type and study. ¹Values below 0% indicate increased subsequent energy intake (more than the energy provided by nuts). Values between 0% and +100% indicate partial energy compensation (the increase in subsequent energy intake was less than the energy provided by nuts). A value of +100% indicates complete compensation (no change in subsequent energy intake). Values more than +100% indicate energy compensation was beyond the energy provided by the nuts (lower subsequent energy intake).

FIGURE 3

Forest plot of the effect of tree nut and peanut consumption on REE (in kilocalories per day), categorized into subgroups based on mean change or final values. Diamond indicates weighted mean difference with 95% CIs.