Development of Scaffolds from Bio-Based Natural Materials for Tissue Regeneration Applications: A Review

Abstract

Tissue damage and organ failure are major problems that many people face worldwide. Most of them benefit from treatment related to modern technology's tissue regeneration process. Tissue engineering is one of the booming fields widely used to replace damaged tissue. Scaffold is a base material in which cells and growth factors are embedded to construct a substitute tissue. Various materials have been used to develop scaffolds. Bio-based natural materials are biocompatible, safe, and do not release toxic compounds during biodegradation. Therefore, it is highly recommendable to fabricate scaffolds using such materials. To date, there have been no singular materials that fulfill all the features of the scaffold. Hence, combining two or more materials is encouraged to obtain the desired characteristics. To design a reliable scaffold by combining different materials, there is a need to choose a good fabrication technique. In this review article, the bio-based natural materials and fine fabrication techniques that are currently used in developing scaffolds for tissue regeneration applications, along with the number of articles published on each material, are briefly discussed. It is envisaged to gain explicit knowledge of developing scaffolds from bio-based natural materials for tissue regeneration applications.

Keywords: fabrication techniques; scaffold; tissue engineering; tissue regeneration.

Figure 1

Vital elements of tissue engineering (simplified diagrammatic representation of the basic concept of tissue engineering, i.e., scaffold, cells, and growth-stimulating factors are the three essential parameters responsible in tissue engineering for forming new functional tissue).

Figure 2

An illustration of the basic principle of TE, which includes cell isolation, cell culture, cell expansion, and tissue grafting into the patient’s body.

Figure 3

The necessary ideal scaffold requirements include biocompatibility, biodegradability, mechanical properties, scaffold architecture, and manufacturing technology.

Figure 4

Materials used for scaffold development. (Materials are divided into four broad categories such as polymers, bio-ceramics, metals, and carbon nanomaterials. Classification with a few examples is summarized.)

Figure 5

Molecular structure of polysaccharides: (a) cellulose-microcrystalline [120]; (b) chitosan [121]; (c) alginate [122]; (d) hyaluronic acid [123].

Figure 5

Molecular structure of polysaccharides: (a) cellulose-microcrystalline [120]; (b) chitosan [121]; (c) alginate [122]; (d) hyaluronic acid [123].

Figure 6

Molecular structure of starch soluble [126]. (Starch is a polysaccharide mainly found in plant cells.)

Figure 7

Molecular structure of some protein molecules: (a) collagen I [175]; (b) keratin [176]; (c) fibrin [177]; (d) elastin [178].

Figure 7

Molecular structure of some protein molecules: (a) collagen I [175]; (b) keratin [176]; (c) fibrin [177]; (d) elastin [178].

Figure 8

Publications on the usage of polysaccharides in tissue engineering. (The number of papers published on individual polysaccharides such as cellulose, chitin, alginate, starch, hyaluronic acid, and pullulan is drawn based on the year and the respective total number of papers published, using search engine: www.scopus.com, accessed on 15 January 2023.)

Figure 9

Publications on the usage of proteins in tissue engineering. (The number of papers published on individual proteins such as collagen, fibrin, fibroin, keratin, elastin, and gelatin is drawn based on the year and the respective total number of papers published, using search engine: www.scopus.com, accessed on 15 January 2023.)

Figure 10

Simplified diagram of an electrospinning device, which consists of four main components such as power supply, syringe pump, metallic needle, and grounded collector. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [2]. Copyright 2019 Abdalla Eltom et al.

Figure 11

Simplified diagram of stereolithography, which consists of a tank, lifting table, laser scanner, and a computer.

Figure 12

Simplified diagram of selective laser sintering, which consists of a reservoir platform, moving workstation, roller, and a scanner.