Advanced Nanomaterials-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Catecholamines Detection: Challenges and Trends

Abstract

Catecholamines, including dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, are considered one of the most crucial subgroups of neurotransmitters in the central nervous system (CNS), in which they act at the brain's highest levels of mental function and play key roles in neurological disorders. Accordingly, the analysis of such catecholamines in biological samples has shown a great interest in clinical and pharmaceutical importance toward the early diagnosis of neurological diseases such as Epilepsy, Parkinson, and Alzheimer diseases. As promising routes for the real-time monitoring of catecholamine neurotransmitters, optical and electrochemical biosensors have been widely adopted and perceived as a dramatically accelerating development in the last decade. Therefore, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview on the recent advances and main challenges in catecholamines biosensors. Particular emphasis is given to electrochemical biosensors, reviewing their sensing mechanism and the unique characteristics brought by the emergence of nanotechnology. Based on specific biosensors' performance metrics, multiple perspectives on the therapeutic use of nanomaterial for catecholamines analysis and future development trends are also summarized.

Keywords: catecholamine neurotransmitters; dopamine; electrochemical biosensor; epinephrine; nanomaterials; norepinephrine.

Figure 1

Biosynthetic pathway and distribution of catecholamine neurotransmitters in the human brain (Produced using BioRender).

Figure 2

Simplified diagram showing electrochemical sensors/biosensors following various surface modifications for catecholamine detection.

Figure 3

Examples of biosensors: (a) rGOPAP based sensor for the specific detection of DA. Reproduced with permission from [57]. Copyright 2021, ACS. (b) Electrochemical sensor based on copolymer electropolymerized at carbon nanowalls for sensitive recognition of DA. Reproduced with permission from [58]. Copyright 2021, ACS, and (c) preparation processes of the Au−IPA−AmGQD−CoTCPhOPc structure for catecholamine monitoring with varying concentrations from 10 µM to 60 µM for DA, EP, and NE in sera samples. Reproduced with permission from [72]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.

Figure 4

Ex vivo electrochemical biosensors based SPE: (a) Monitoring of DA secreted from PC 12 cells using Pt nanoparticle decorated CNTs. Reproduced with permission from [73]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier, (b) Schematic illustration of NE quantification in rat tissue samples based on Co−Polymer and SWCNTs. Reproduced with permission from [74]. Copyright 2023. Elsevier, and (c) experimental setup of DA detection released in mice brain using unmodified SPE and its corresponding chronoamperometric measurements with different configurations for striatum cerebellum brain slices before and after 0.1 M KCl stimulation. Reproduced with permission from [75].

Figure 5

Assembly process of electrochemical aptasensor fabrication: (a) Methylene blue−integrated Ce−MOF capturing DNA for specific DA monitoring in human serum. (b) SWV curves of different concentrations of dopamine up to 100 nM. (c) Specificity study of the proposed aptasensor. Reproduced with permission from [133]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier, (d) Electrografting process of DNA−Aptamer-based multi-probe for simultaneous detection of DA and Serotonin in ex vivo. (e) Real-time response of dopamine and (f) serotonin with a concentration range from 10 pM to 100 μM. Reproduced with permission from [134]. Copyright 2022, ACS.

Figure 6

Enzyme based biosensor examples: (a) Schematic illustration of the biosensor based on laccase−halloysite nanotubes combined with imidazolium zwitterionic surfactants for dopamine detection. (b) EIS spectra in 5 mM [Fe(CN)₆]^3−/4− prepared in KCl for different functionalization steps. (c) SWV curves obtained after incubation of different DA concentrations. Reproduced with permission from [146]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (d) Biosensing platform for epinephrine monitoring based on multi walled carbon nano tubes mediated tyrosinase enzyme. (e) DPV curves obtained at Ty/MWCNTs/GCE for different EP concentrations ranging from 3 μM to 200 μM. (f) Calibration curve of the obtained biosensor showing good sensitivity and reproducibility. Reproduced with permission from [147]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.

Figure 7

Portable on−chip based NTs biosensor: (a) Detection strategy based on bioelectrocatalytical amplification for selective adrenaline detection in human blood plasma. (b) Amperometric i−t curves of the biosensor measured in PBS with a variation of catecholamines in the concentration range of 1 nM to 150 nM. (c) calibration plots of the biosensor. Reproduced with permission from [162]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (d) Microfluidic channel based electrochemical detection of dopamine in mouse cerebrospinal fluid and blood. (e) Calibration graph performed in PBS or aSCF with an inset showing DA concentration up to 1 nM. (f) Selectivity studies of the DA biosensor in the presence of interferants, including glucose, lactate, uric acid, and ascorbic acid. Reproduced with permission from [163]. Copyright 2022, ACS.

Figure 8

Schematic representation of the working principle and functionalization steps of fluorescence biosensor based AuNPs for simultaneous detection of catecholamine (DA, EP, and NE), and their associated predicted response versus measured concentration of (a) Dopamine, (b) Norepinephrine, and (c) Epinephrine. Reproduced with permission from [188]. Copyright 2020, ACS.

Figure 9

Schematic presentation of fluorescent biosensor with a Cell-Surface-Anchored DNA-Nanoprism for dopamine quantification release from live-cell. Reproduced with permission from [195]. Copyright 2020, ACS.

Figure 10

Handheld ELC imaging systems: (a) Schematic representation of a handheld ECL analysis device displays the pretreatment and testing of dopamine biosamples, (b) Correlation between ECL intensity and DA concentration. Reproduced with permission from [198]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (c) Experimental setup of confined ECL imaging chip (CEIM) for sensing DA released from a single PC12 cell, (d) Calibration curve ECL signal as a function of the DA concentrations. Reproduced with permission from [199]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.