Neural Correlates of the p Factor in Adolescence: Cognitive Control With and Without Enhanced Positive Affective Demands

Abstract

Background: Recent research has aimed to characterize processes underlying general liability toward psychopathology, termed the p factor. Given previous research linking the p factor with difficulties in both executive functioning and affective regulation, the present study investigated nonaffective and positive affective inhibition in the context of a sustained attention/inhibition paradigm in adolescents exhibiting mild to severe psychopathology.

Methods: Functional magnetic resonance imaging data were collected during an integrated reward conditioning and go/no-go task in 138 adolescents assigned female at birth. We modeled the p factor using hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis. Positive affective inhibition was measured by examining responses to no-go stimuli with a history of reward conditioning. We examined associations between p factor scores and neural function and behavioral performance.

Results: Consistent with nonaffective executive function as a primary risk factor, p factor scores were associated with worse behavioral performance and hypoactivation in the left superior frontal gyrus and middle frontal gyrus during response initiation (go trials). The p factor scores were additionally associated with increased error-related signaling in the temporal cortex during incorrect no-go trials.

Conclusions: During adolescence, a period characterized by heightened risk for emergent psychopathology, we observed unique associations between p factor scores and neural and behavioral indices of response initiation, which relies primarily on sustained attention. These findings suggest that shared variation in mental disorder categories is characterized in part by sustained attention deficits. While we did not find evidence that the p factor was associated with inhibition in this study, this observation is consistent with our hypothesis that the p factor would be related to nonaffective control processes.

Keywords: Adolescence; Go/no-go task; Inhibition; Psychopathology; Sustained attention; p factor.

Figure 1.. P-Factor Modeling.

Modeling of p-factor using a confirmatory factor analysis: A. hierarchical modeling of p-factor used as the main analysis. B. Bifactor modeling of p-factor used as a sensitivity analysis. Ext = externalizing, Int = internalizing. ADHD = Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, CD = Conduct Disorder, ODD = Oppositional Defiant Disorder, MDE = most symptomatic Major Depressive Episode, GAD = Generalized Anxiety Disorder, PTSD = Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Psychopathology questionnaires: Youth Self-Report (YSR), Conners-3 Parent Report, Mini Neuropsychiatric Interview for children and adolescents (MINI-KID), Mood and Feelings Questionnaires (MFQ), Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders (SCARED).

Figure 2.. The CARIT Task.

The Conditioned Appetitive Response Inhibition Task (CARIT) assessing non-affective and positive affective inhibition. A. The reward conditioning phase (modified MID paradigm) B. The inhibitory control phase. Figures reproduced with permission from Davidow et al (2018).

Figure 3.. Main Effect of Non-Affective Inhibition.

Main effect of non-affective inhibition to Previously Unrewarded (PU) targets relative to successful responses to Go targets (N = 117). These maps demonstrate positive associations with the bilateral insular cortex extending into the inferior frontal gyrus, paracingulate gyrus, supplementary motor area, and occipital regions (voxel-wise corrected Z = 3.1, cluster corrected p < 0.05).

Figure 4.. P-Factor Associated with Response Initiation.

Successful response initiation, regressed on p-factor scores (N = 117). Voxel-wise corrected Z = 3.1 and cluster-corrected p < 0.05. These maps show a negative association between p-factor scores and activation in the left superior frontal gyrus/middle frontal gyrus and right supplementary motor cortex during successful response initiation; activation in the left superior frontal gyrus/middle frontal gyrus was robust to additional controls for medication use.

Figure 5.. No-Go Error-Related Signaling and P-Factor.

No-Go error-related signaling (Incorrect No-Go > Correct Go), regressed on p-factor scores (N = 116). Voxel-wise corrected Z = 3.1 and cluster-corrected p < 0.05. A. Uncontrolled for medication use. These maps show a positive association between p-factor scores and activation in the right inferior temporal gyrus. B. Controlled for medication use. These maps show a positive association between p-factor scores and activation in the right inferior temporal gyrus/temporoparietal junction and left occipital cortex.