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Multicenter Study
. 2023 Apr 17;13(4):e070688.
doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2022-070688.

Factors associated with having COVID-19 among unvaccinated pregnant and non-pregnant women in Metro Manila, Philippines: a multicentre longitudinal cohort study

Erlidia F Llamas-Clark  1   2 , Francisco M Heralde  3 , Mayan U Lumandas  4 , Maria Stephanie Fay S Cagayan  5 , Maria Esterlita T Villanueva-Uy  2 , Leilani C Chavez-Coloma  6 , Eleyneth I Valencia  6 , Charizze Anne S Cabana  6 , Lea Bernadette H Espinosa  6 , Cynthia U Anzures  7 , Maria Lu D Andal  7 , Carolina Paula C Martin  8 , Patricia Nevira V Suarez  9 , Celine D Quanico  9 , Julia B Beltran  9 , Vanessa D de Guzman  10 , Ryan B Capitulo  10 , Arlene R Dominguez  11 , Abygail L Recio  11 , Jeremiah F Feliciano  12 , Emmanuel S Baja  13   14 , Paulyn Jean B Rosell-Ubial  15
Affiliations
Multicenter Study

Factors associated with having COVID-19 among unvaccinated pregnant and non-pregnant women in Metro Manila, Philippines: a multicentre longitudinal cohort study

Erlidia F Llamas-Clark et al. BMJ Open. .

Abstract

Objective: To determine the potential risk factors associated with having COVID-19 among unvaccinated pregnant and non-pregnant women.

Design: A multicentre prospective cohort study among eligible women in Metro Manila, Philippines, from 2020 to 2022.

Setting: Five national and local hospital research sites altogether recruited and screened 500 consenting eligible individuals.

Participants: Pregnant and non-pregnant participants meeting the eligibility criteria were admitted for a reverse-transcription PCR determination of SARS-CoV-2, pregnancy testing and ultrasound, and an interview with an administered questionnaire.

Exposures: Primary exposure was pregnancy; secondary exposures involve sociodemographic, lifestyle and obstetric-gynaecologic factors.

Outcome measure: Outcome being measured was COVID-19 status.

Results: The significant COVID-19 risk factors were: pregnancy (PR=1.184, 95% CI 1.096, 1.279), having a white-collar job (PR=1.123, 95% CI 1.02, 1.235), travelling abroad (PR=1.369, 95% CI 1.083, 1.173) and being infected by at least one vaccine-preventable disease (VPD) (PR=1.208, 95% CI 1.113, 1.310). Protective factors included having graduate-level education (PR=0.787, 95% CI 0.649, 0.954), immunisation against a VPD (PR=0.795, 95% CI 0.733, 0.862) and practising contraception (PR=0.889, 95% CI 0.824, 0.960).

Conclusion: This study is the first in the country to determine the risks influencing COVID-19 infection among unvaccinated pregnant and non-pregnant women. Pregnancy is a significant risk for COVID-19 among women in Metro Manila. Educational attainment and positive health behaviours seem to confer protection. Occupations and activities that increase the frequency of interactions, as well as history of communicable diseases may predispose women to COVID-19. Further studies are needed to elucidate the development of the disease in pregnant women, including the maternal and neonatal effects of COVID-19 via potential vertical mechanisms of transmission.

Keywords: COVID-19; EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES; OBSTETRICS; Public health.

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Conflict of interest statement

Competing interests: None declared.

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