Research Progress on Biomimetic Nanomaterials for Electrochemical Glucose Sensors

Abstract

Diabetes has become a chronic disease that necessitates timely and accurate detection. Among various detection methods, electrochemical glucose sensors have attracted much attention because of low cost, real-time detection, and simple and easy operation. Nonenzymatic biomimetic nanomaterials are the vital part in electrochemical glucose sensors. This review article summarizes the methods to enhance the glucose sensing performance of noble metal, transition metal oxides, and carbon-based materials and introduces biomimetic nanomaterials used in noninvasive glucose detection in sweat, tear, urine, and saliva. Based on these, this review provides the foundation for noninvasive determination of trace glucose for diabetic patients in the future.

Keywords: biomimetic nanomaterials; electrochemical; glucose sensing; noninvasive.

Figure 1

Structure and mechanism of glucose sensors.

Figure 2

Illustration of this review for biomimetic nanoparticles for glucose sensors.

Figure 3

SEM images of the Au/MXene composite nanoparticles prepared by different amounts of MXene suspension: (A) 1 µL (B) 2.5 µL, (C) 5 µL, and (D) 10 µL; (E) SEM image of the porous foam structure of the Au nanoparticles on the surface of the MXene; (F–I) SEM and corresponding elemental mapping images of the Au/MXene composite nanoparticles; (J) CV scans of 1–6: GCE, MXene, and modified with different amount of Au/MXene/Nafion [55] with permission (Copyright © 2022, Chinese Physical Society).

Figure 4

(A) Preparation of the Au@Ni-Fe PBA nanocages; CV responses of the porous Au (B) and Au@Ni-Fe PBA/Nafion (C) with and without glucose, and the insets show the surface morphology of materials [56] with permission (Copyright © 2022, Springer); (D) Schematic illustration of the formation of Pt/HCS; (E) Amperometric response of Pt/HCS to successive addition of glucose at the potential of 0.6 V in N₂-saturated 0.1 M PBS solution (pH = 7.4); (F) the current response of Pt/HCS to different analytes (sucrose, lactose, and maltose) [57] with permission (Copyright © 2018, American Chemical Society).

Figure 5

(A) Design and synthesis of Fe₃O₄@Au@CoFe-LDH. (B) CV curves of CoFe-LDH and Fe₃O₄@Au@CoFe-LDH with and without 50 mM glucose [58] with permission (Copyright © 2022, Elsevier).

Figure 6

(A) Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) curves of glucose oxidation with and without illumination; (B) photocurrent responses of Au and Au₂₀₀Bi with and without 1 mM glucose at 0.15 V [61] with permission (Copyright © 2022, American Chemical Society). The CV curves of Cu₂O/AZO NRs (C), Au NPs/Cu₂O/AZO NRs (D), and Ag NPs/Cu₂O/AZO NRs (E) [62] with permission (Copyright © 2022, Elsevier).

Figure 7

CV curves of materials in the presence of glucose from 0 to 10 mM: (A) Ti1.00:Cu0.50, (B) Ti1.00:Cu1.00, and (C) CuO [67] with permission (Copyright © 2020, Royal Society of Chemistry).

Figure 8

DFT calculations of glucose reaction pathway over (A) Co₃O₄ and (B) C-doped Co₃O₄; (C) the adsorption energy of adsorbed glucose; (D) free energy step of different reaction pathways. (E) Linear range of C-doped Co₃O₄; (F) UV detection glucose [32] with permission (Copyright © 2022, Springer).

Figure 9

(A) UV-visible spectra of pristine Co₃O₄ and Pd-Co₃O₄ nanostructures. (B) CV curves of BGCE and MGCE with Pd-Co₃O₄ with and without glucose [70] with permission (Copyright © 2022, Indian Academy of Sciences).

Figure 10

SEM images of (A,B) NiCo₂O₄ follower, (C,D) C/NiCo₂O₄-1 follower, and (E,F) C/NiCo₂O₄-2 flake; (G–K) the elemental mapping of C/NiCo₂O₄-1; (L) the amperometry profile of C/NiCo₂O₄-1 NF@GCE with a low to high concentration of glucose from 0.0001 to 15.28 mM [75] with permission (Copyright © 2022, Elsevier).

Figure 11

Electrochemical sweat glucose sensors based on different biomimetic nanomaterials: (A) Pt/MXene [104] with permission (Copyright © 2023, American Chemical Society); (B) Cu₂O NFs/Cu NPs with permission (Copyright © 2023, MDPI); (C) Ni–Co MOF nanosheet coated Au/PDMS film [7] with permission (Copyright © 2022, The Royal Society of Chemistry).

Figure 12

(A) CuO electro-oxidation mechanism of glucose in alkaline solutions; (B) scheme illustration of inkjet-printed electrochemical sensor based on CuO nanoparticles [106] with permission (Copyright © 2018, Elsevier); (C) scheme illustration of the preparation of Fe_xCo_yO₄-rGO and the analysis of tear glucose [108] with permission (Copyright © 2023, Elsevier).

Figure 13

(A) NiCo₂O₄ nanosphere based glucose detection platform for urine glucose sensor [109] with permission (Copyright © 2021, IEEE); (B) fabrication of CuO-IL/rGO modified SPCE for nonenzymatic urine glucose sensor [110] with permission (Copyright © 2021, The Royal Society of Chemistry); (C) illustration of SDBA-PtAu/CNTs nanozyme and glucose standard solution at different concentrations of SDBA-PtAu/CNTs and PBA/CNTs [11] with permission (Copyright © 2023, Elsevier).

Figure 14

(A) The integrated saliva glucose sensor based on CoNi-N@GaN-3S [102] with permission (Copyright © 2022, American Chemical Society); (B–D) photograph of the smart toothbrush with electrochemical three electrodes for detecting saliva glucose and linked with APP by a smartphone [119] (Copyright © 2019, Elsevier).