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. 2023 Mar 28;15(4):865.
doi: 10.3390/v15040865.

COVID-19 and Respiratory Virus Co-Infections: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Helena C Maltezou  1 , Amalia Papanikolopoulou  2 , Sofia Vassiliu  3 , Kalliopi Theodoridou  4 , Georgia Nikolopoulou  5 , Nikolaos V Sipsas  6
Affiliations

COVID-19 and Respiratory Virus Co-Infections: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Helena C Maltezou et al. Viruses. .

Abstract

Τhe COVID-19 pandemic highly impacted the circulation, seasonality, and morbidity burden of several respiratory viruses. We reviewed published cases of SARS-CoV-2 and respiratory virus co-infections as of 12 April 2022. SARS-CoV-2 and influenza co-infections were reported almost exclusively during the first pandemic wave. It is possible that the overall incidence of SARS-CoV-2 co-infections is higher because of the paucity of co-testing for respiratory viruses during the first pandemic waves when mild cases might have been missed. Animal models indicate severe lung pathology and high fatality; nevertheless, the available literature is largely inconclusive regarding the clinical course and prognosis of co-infected patients. Animal models also indicate the importance of considering the sequence timing of each respiratory virus infection; however, there is no such information in reported human cases. Given the differences between 2020 and 2023 in terms of epidemiology and availability of vaccines and specific treatment against COVID-19, it is rational not to extrapolate these early findings to present times. It is expected that the characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and respiratory virus co-infections will evolve in the upcoming seasons. Multiplex real-time PCR-based assays have been developed in the past two years and should be used to increase diagnostic and infection control capacity, and also for surveillance purposes. Given that COVID-19 and influenza share the same high-risk groups, it is essential that the latter get vaccinated against both viruses. Further studies are needed to elucidate how SARS-CoV-2 and respiratory virus co-infections will be shaped in the upcoming years, in terms of impact and prognosis.

Keywords: COVID-19; RSV; SARS-CoV-2; co-infection; influenza; respiratory virus.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Flow diagram results of literature search.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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