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. 2023 May 8;20(9):5748.
doi: 10.3390/ijerph20095748.

Illicit Online Pharmacies: A Scoping Review

Yam B Limbu  1 , Bruce A Huhmann  2
Affiliations

Illicit Online Pharmacies: A Scoping Review

Yam B Limbu et al. Int J Environ Res Public Health. .

Abstract

This scoping review presents the extent and nature of the body of literature on illicit online pharmacies (IOPs) and identifies research gaps. Using the five-step framework developed by Arksey and O'Malley, we searched PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, CINAHL, Science Direct and PsycInfo to retrieve relevant studies published in English in peer-reviewed journals. The search strategy identified forty-three articles that met the inclusion criteria. Ten themes were identified and categorized into five clusters: patient risk, healthcare providers, marketing and supply chain, public health and society, and policy and regulation. Research into these clusters has evolved over time and has focused increasingly on issues related to specific drugs rather than the overall phenomenon. Data collection has been dominated by convenience sampling, online searches, content analysis and surveys. Data analysis remains primarily descriptive. Gaps within the extant literature suggest an agenda for future research into regulation and enforcement; public health awareness and education; healthcare services; risks to patients and public health; patient-, price- and product-related issues; website design; social media promotion; and supply chains and logistics. We conclude that IOPs are vastly understudied and suggest an urgent need for further empirical and conclusive research.

Keywords: illicit online pharmacies; patient safety; pharmaceutical marketing and supply chain; prescription drug; public health awareness and education; scoping review.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
PRISMA-ScR flow diagram showing search strategy and study selection process.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Clusters of themes covered in the IOP literature.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Studies within each thematic cluster by publication year.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Studies within each thematic cluster by data collection method.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Studies that investigated a particular medication or drug category versus the overall IOP phenomenon by year of publication.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Data collection method in IOP research by year of publication.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Data analysis in IOP research over time.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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