Functional Nanomaterials Enhancing Electrochemical Biosensors as Smart Tools for Detecting Infectious Viral Diseases

Abstract

Electrochemical biosensors are known as analytical tools, guaranteeing rapid and on-site results in medical diagnostics, food safety, environmental protection, and life sciences research. Current research focuses on developing sensors for specific targets and addresses challenges to be solved before their commercialization. These challenges typically include the lowering of the limit of detection, the widening of the linear concentration range, the analysis of real samples in a real environment and the comparison with a standard validation method. Nowadays, functional nanomaterials are designed and applied in electrochemical biosensing to support all these challenges. This review will address the integration of functional nanomaterials in the development of electrochemical biosensors for the rapid diagnosis of viral infections, such as COVID-19, middle east respiratory syndrome (MERS), influenza, hepatitis, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and dengue, among others. The role and relevance of the nanomaterial, the type of biosensor, and the electrochemical technique adopted will be discussed. Finally, the critical issues in applying laboratory research to the analysis of real samples, future perspectives, and commercialization aspects of electrochemical biosensors for virus detection will be analyzed.

Keywords: aptasensors; electrochemical (bio)sensors; functional nanomaterials; genosensors; hybrid nanostructures; immunosensors.

Figure 1

Layout of an electrochemical biosensor for virus detection, including analytes, BREs, transducers and electroanalytical techniques.

Figure 2

Schematic representation of the nanomaterials applied to electrochemical biosensors for virus detection.

Figure 3

Schematic illustration of the assembling steps of the described genosensor. (1) electrode preconditioning; (2) drop-casting of GO on the AuE; (3) and (4) GO layers on Au surface; (5) surface activation with EDC/NHS; (6) introduction of (ethylenediamine) ETD; (7) probe immobilization; (8) surface blocking step; (9) target-probe interaction; (10) electrochemical detection, where: black– probe, red -positive control, green—negative control. Reprinted with permission from [86]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Figure 4

Scheme of the genosensor assembly and HPV detection steps. Reprinted with permission from [89]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Figure 5

Scheme of the preparation of the magnetically aligned Au/MNP-CNTs on the Pt-IDE for DNA sensing channels (not to scale) and the genosensing mechanism involving the voltammetric determination of Influenza A virus. Reprinted with permission from [92]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier.

Figure 6

Scheme of the electrochemical immunosensor for detection of three different avian influenza virus antigens. Here, H5N1 AIV is only present for reasons of synthesis. RT indicates room temperature, ~25 °C. Reprinted from [112].

Figure 7

(A) Scheme of the SARS-CoV-2 RapidPlex multisensing telemedicine platform for detection of SARS-CoV-2 viral proteins, IgG and IgM, and/or CRP. (B) Mass-producible laser-engraved graphene sensor arrays. (C) Image of a disposable and flexible graphene array. (D) Image of a SARS-CoV-2 RapidPlex system with a graphene sensor array connected to a printed circuit board for signal processing and wireless communication. Reprinted with permission from [113]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

Figure 8

Illustration of the assembling sensor and the immunosensing mechanism. Reprinted with permission from [119]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Figure 9

Illustration of (a) the nanocomposite synthesis and (b) sensor assembling and the immunosensing mechanism. Reprinted with permission from [141]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Figure 10

Preparation and surface functionalization of a paper-based working electrode. Five steps are involved: (1) cutting paper pieces into the working electrode shape, (2) printing a layer of carbon ink on paper, (3) growing ZnO NWs on the carbon ink, (4) immobilizing probe and blocking molecules to the surface of WEs, and (5) using the WE to capture target molecules for EIS biosensing. Reprinted with permission from [149]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Figure 11

Scheme of the MERS-NV aptasensor based on EC/SERS dual approach. Reprinted with permission from [162]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Figure 12

Scheme of the 3D electrochemical aptasensor for HuNoV detection. (a) Screen-printed CE and RE, and spherical WE. (b) Side-view of the proposed aptasensor and electrical connection. (c) Steps for the electrode functionalization and aptasensing of norovirus. (d,e) Prototype of the 3D electrochemical aptasensor. Reprinted with permission from [169]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Figure 13

Representation of the SNCEB for the Detection of H7N9 AIV. (A) Modification of MNs with the aptamer, aaDNA1and interaction with virus; (B) MNs modified with AuNPs, ssDNA2, interaction with ssDNA1 and Nt.Alwl, and detection of AuNPs. Reprinted with permission from [173]. Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society.

Figure 14

Preparation step by step of aptasensor for SARS-CoV-2 S-protein detection. Reprinted with permission from [179]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.