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. 2023 Apr 26;13(4):e064033.
doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2022-064033.

Experience of loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study of 50 968 adult Danes

Lea An Christoffersen  1 , Dorte Helenius  2 , Michael Schwinn  3 , Christian Erikstrup  4 , Henrik Hjalgrim  5   6 , Janna Nissen  3 , Karina Banasik  7 , Kaspar Nielsen  8 , Kathrine A Kaspersen  4   9 , Khoa M Dinh  4 , Mie T Bruun  10 , Sisse R Ostrowski  3   11 , Susanne Sækmose  12 , Thomas F Hansen  7   13 , Thomas Werge  2 , Maria Didriksen  3 , Ole Birger Pedersen  12
Affiliations

Experience of loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study of 50 968 adult Danes

Lea An Christoffersen et al. BMJ Open. .

Abstract

Objectives: To examine the level of loneliness experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic in Denmark and to identify associated behavioural patterns and demographic factors.

Design: Cross-sectional cohort study.

Setting: Includes Danish active and former blood donors.

Participants: A questionnaire was sent to 124 307 active and former blood donors, of these a total of 50 968 participants completed the study questionnaire (response rate=41%).

Primary and secondary outcome measures: Subjective experience of loneliness was measured using the 3-item University of California, Los Angeles Loneliness Scale (UCLA-3). Besides the UCLA-3, the respondents answered items on sociodemographic and economic characteristics, items on precautionary measures taken to avoid COVID-19 infection as well as on COVID-19 anxiety.

Results: The participants indicated their experienced level of loneliness both before and during the pandemic. Comparing the two reports yielded a mean increase in loneliness scores of 14.1% (p<0.001). Exploratory factor analysis identified the factor well-being, which comprised three questionnaire items related to emotional heath, physical health and happiness. A high score on the factor well-being was associated with reduced levels of loneliness (coefficient=-0.47, 95% CI -0.49 to -0.46)). Furthermore, women were more likely than men to have experienced increased levels of loneliness during the pandemic (coefficient=0.27, 95% CI 0.25 to 0.29). Furthermore, a negative correlation between higher age and change in loneliness score was observed.

Conclusions: The findings document an increase in the level of experienced loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly affecting individuals with low well-being, women and younger individuals.

Keywords: COVID-19; mental health; public health.

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Conflict of interest statement

Competing interests: None declared.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Selection of the study sample (Denmark, 2020–2022). DBDS, Danish Blood Donor Study.
Figure 2
Figure 2
The three factors, prepandemic isolation, COVID-19 preventive measures and well-being, identified from exploratory factor analysis (Denmark, 2020–2022).
Figure 3
Figure 3
The association between age and change in the level of loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic in Denmark (Denmark, 2020–2022). Model A: mean differences, calculated in a (multivariable) linear regression model, n=47 476. Model B: within-individual difference, calculated in (multivariable) generalised linear mixed model, n=48 457. *Adjusted for baseline loneliness score.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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