Intergenerational Transmission of Depression: Examining the Roles of Racism and Trauma Among Black Mothers and Youth

Abstract

Objective: Racism is a multifaceted system of oppression that disproportionately harms Black mothers and children across the lifespan. Despite reliable evidence that racism is associated with worse mental health outcomes (eg, increased depressive symptoms), less is known about potential intergenerational effects of Black mothers' experiences of racism on children's mental health, as well as how traumatic experiences influence these pathways. In this cross-sectional quantitative study, we aimed (1) to replicate the finding that maternal experiences of racism are associated with both maternal and child depression; (2) to identify whether maternal experiences of racism are indirectly associated with child depression via the effect of maternal depression; and (3) to test whether the indirect effect of racism on child depression via maternal depression is conditioned on maternal trauma.

Method: Black mothers and their children (N = 148 dyads) were recruited from an urban hospital and were interviewed about their experiences of racism, trauma, and mental health symptoms. The mothers' average age was 35.16 years (SD = 8.75) and the children's average age was 10.03 years (SD = 1.51).

Results: First, we found that maternal experiences of racism were associated with more severe maternal depression (r = 0.37, p < .01) as well as more severe child depression (r = 0.19, p = .02). Second, we found that maternal experiences of racism were indirectly associated with child depression through the effect of maternal depression (ab = 0.76, 95% CI = 0.26, 1.37). Third, we found that maternal trauma exposure moderated this indirect effect such that, at relatively lower levels of maternal trauma exposure, the indirect effect of maternal experiences of racism on child depression was nonsignificant (ω_low = -0.05, 95% CI = -0.50, 0.45), whereas at relatively higher levels of maternal trauma exposure, the indirect effect of maternal experiences of racism on child depression was statistically significant (ω_high= .65, 95% CI = 0.21, 1.15).

Conclusion: These findings suggest that the indirect effect of maternal experiences of racism on child depression through the effect of maternal depression depends on the degree of maternal trauma exposure. This study advances the literature by shedding light on key processes that can explain the intergenerational effects of racism as well as contextual factors that can exacerbate racism's downstream consequences across generations.

Keywords: depression; intergenerational; maternal stress; racism; trauma.

Figure 1. Number of Racial Discrimination Types Endorsed by Participants

Note. This figure depicts the number of racial discrimination types experienced by participants. About 37% of participants endorsed no racial discrimination types, 39% reported experiencing 1 to 3 types, 21% reported experiencing 4 to 6 types, and 4% reported experiencing between 7 to 9 types. This measure was used as a continuous variable in our data analyses, but is depicted categorically in this figure for ease of interpretation.

Figure 2 .. Number of Trauma Types Endorsed by Participants

Note. This figure depicts the number of racial discrimination types experienced by participants. About 8% of participants endorsed no trauma, 41% reported experiencing 1 to 4 types, 35% reported experiencing 5 to 8 types, 12% reported experiencing 9 to 12 types, and 4% reported experiencing between 13 to 17 types. This measure was used as a continuous variable in our data analyses, but is depicted categorically in this figure for ease of interpretation.

Figure 3.. Association Between Maternal Experiences of Racism and Maternal Depression

Note. This figure depicts the association between maternal depression (BDI) and maternal experiences of racism (EoD; mean-centered) at low (−1 SD), mean, and high (+1 SD) maternal trauma exposure. The association was positive and statistically significant at high (+1 SD) trauma exposure, positive and non-statistically significant at mean maternal trauma exposure, and negative and non-statistically significant at low (−1 SD) maternal trauma exposure. EoD = Experiences of Discrimination, BDI = Beck Depression Inventory-II, TEI = Traumatic Events Inventory.