Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Review
. 2023 Jun 22;6(6):CD005105.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD005105.pub3.

Low glycaemic index or low glycaemic load diets for people with overweight or obesity

Khadidja Chekima  1 , See Wan Yan  2 , Shaun Wen Huey Lee  3 , Tziak Ze Wong  4 , Mohd Ismail Noor  5   6 , Yasmin Bh Ooi  7 , Maria-Inti Metzendorf  8 , Nai Ming Lai  9
Affiliations
Review

Low glycaemic index or low glycaemic load diets for people with overweight or obesity

Khadidja Chekima et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: The prevalence of obesity is increasing worldwide, yet nutritional management remains contentious. It has been suggested that low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets may stimulate greater weight loss than higher GI/GL diets or other weight reduction diets. The previous version of this review, published in 2007, found mainly short-term intervention studies. Since then, randomised controlled trials (RCTs) with longer-term follow-up have become available, warranting an update of this review.

Objectives: To assess the effects of low glycaemic index or low glycaemic load diets on weight loss in people with overweight or obesity.

Search methods: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, one other database, and two clinical trials registers from their inception to 25 May 2022. We did not apply any language restrictions.

Selection criteria: We included RCTs with a minimum duration of eight weeks comparing low GI/GL diets to higher GI/GL diets or any other diets in people with overweight or obesity.

Data collection and analysis: We used standard Cochrane methods. We conducted two main comparisons: low GI/GL diets versus higher GI/GL diets and low GI/GL diets versus any other diet. Our main outcomes included change in body weight and body mass index, adverse events, health-related quality of life, and mortality. We used GRADE to assess the certainty of the evidence for each outcome.

Main results: In this updated review, we included 10 studies (1210 participants); nine were newly-identified studies. We included only one study from the previous version of this review, following a revision of inclusion criteria. We listed five studies as 'awaiting classification' and one study as 'ongoing'. Of the 10 included studies, seven compared low GI/GL diets (233 participants) with higher GI/GL diets (222 participants) and three studies compared low GI/GL diets (379 participants) with any other diet (376 participants). One study included children (50 participants); one study included adults aged over 65 years (24 participants); the remaining studies included adults (1136 participants). The duration of the interventions varied from eight weeks to 18 months. All trials had an unclear or high risk of bias across several domains. Low GI/GL diets versus higher GI/GL diets Low GI/GL diets probably result in little to no difference in change in body weight compared to higher GI/GL diets (mean difference (MD) -0.82 kg, 95% confidence interval (CI) -1.92 to 0.28; I2 = 52%; 7 studies, 403 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). Evidence from four studies reporting change in body mass index (BMI) indicated low GI/GL diets may result in little to no difference in change in BMI compared to higher GI/GL diets (MD -0.45 kg/m2, 95% CI -1.02 to 0.12; I2 = 22%; 186 participants; low-certainty evidence)at the end of the study periods. One study assessing participants' mood indicated that low GI/GL diets may improve mood compared to higher GI/GL diets, but the evidence is very uncertain (MD -3.5, 95% CI -9.33 to 2.33; 42 participants; very low-certainty evidence). Two studies assessing adverse events did not report any adverse events; we judged this outcome to have very low-certainty evidence. No studies reported on all-cause mortality. For the secondary outcomes, low GI/GL diets may result in little to no difference in fat mass compared to higher GI/GL diets (MD -0.86 kg, 95% CI -1.52 to -0.20; I2 = 6%; 6 studies, 295 participants; low certainty-evidence). Similarly, low GI/GL diets may result in little to no difference in fasting blood glucose level compared to higher GI/GL diets (MD 0.12 mmol/L, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.21; I2 = 0%; 6 studies, 344 participants; low-certainty evidence). Low GI/GL diets versus any other diet Low GI/GL diets probably result in little to no difference in change in body weight compared to other diets (MD -1.24 kg, 95% CI -2.82 to 0.34; I2 = 70%; 3 studies, 723 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). The evidence suggests that low GI/GL diets probably result in little to no difference in change in BMI compared to other diets (MD -0.30 kg in favour of low GI/GL diets, 95% CI -0.59 to -0.01; I2 = 0%; 2 studies, 650 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). Two adverse events were reported in one study: one was not related to the intervention, and the other, an eating disorder, may have been related to the intervention. Another study reported 11 adverse events, including hypoglycaemia following an oral glucose tolerance test. The same study reported seven serious adverse events, including kidney stones and diverticulitis. We judged this outcome to have low-certainty evidence. No studies reported on health-related quality of life or all-cause mortality. For the secondary outcomes, none of the studies reported on fat mass. Low GI/GL diets probably do not reduce fasting blood glucose level compared to other diets (MD 0.03 mmol/L, 95% CI -0.05 to 0.12; I2 = 0%; 3 studies, 732 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: The current evidence indicates there may be little to no difference for all main outcomes between low GI/GL diets versus higher GI/GL diets or any other diet. There is insufficient information to draw firm conclusions about the effect of low GI/GL diets on people with overweight or obesity. Most studies had a small sample size, with only a few participants in each comparison group. We rated the certainty of the evidence as moderate to very low. More well-designed and adequately-powered studies are needed. They should follow a standardised intervention protocol, adopt objective outcome measurement since blinding may be difficult to achieve, and make efforts to minimise loss to follow-up. Furthermore, studies in people from a wide range of ethnicities and with a wide range of dietary habits, as well as studies in low- and middle-income countries, are needed.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

Khadidja Chekima: none known

Shaun Wen Huey Lee: none known

Tziak Ze Wong: none known

Mohd Ismail Noor: none known

Yasmin Beng Houi Ooi: none known

See Wan Yan: none known

Maria‐Inti Metzendorf: no known conflict of interest. MIM is an information specialist of the Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group, but she was excluded from the editorial processing of this article.

Nai Ming Lai: none known

Figures

1
1
2
2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies (blank cells indicate that the particular outcome was not measured in some studies). All studies did not report on all‐cause mortality.
3
3
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study (blank cells indicate that the particular outcome was not measured in some studies). All studies did not report on all‐cause mortality.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 1: Body weight (kg)
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 2: BMI (kg/m 2)
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 3: Waist circumference (cm)
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 4: Fat mass (kg)
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 5: Lean mass (kg)
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 6: Fasting blood glucose levels (mmol/L)
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 7: HbA1c (%)
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 8: Fasting plasma insulin (pmol/L)
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 9: HOMA‐IR
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 10: Total cholesterol (mmol/L)
1.11
1.11. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 11: HDL cholesterol (mmol/L)
1.12
1.12. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 12: LDL cholesterol (mmol/L)
1.13
1.13. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 13: Triglycerides (mmol/L)
1.14
1.14. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 14: Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg)
1.15
1.15. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 15: Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg)
1.16
1.16. Analysis
Comparison 1: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus higher GI or GL diets, Outcome 16: Health‐related quality of life
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus any other diet, Outcome 1: Body weight (kg)
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus any other diet, Outcome 2: BMI (kg/m2)
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus any other diet, Outcome 3: Waist circumreference (cm)
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus any other diet, Outcome 4: Fasting blood glucose levels (mmol/L)
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus any other diet, Outcome 5: Fasting plasma insulin (pmol/L)
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus any other diet, Outcome 6: HOMA‐IR
2.7
2.7. Analysis
Comparison 2: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus any other diet, Outcome 7: Total cholesterol (mmol/L)
2.8
2.8. Analysis
Comparison 2: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus any other diet, Outcome 8: HDL cholesterol (mmol/L)
2.9
2.9. Analysis
Comparison 2: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus any other diet, Outcome 9: LDL cholesterol (mmol/L)
2.10
2.10. Analysis
Comparison 2: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus any other diet, Outcome 10: Triglycerides (mmol/L)
2.11
2.11. Analysis
Comparison 2: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus any other diet, Outcome 11: Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg)
2.12
2.12. Analysis
Comparison 2: Low glycaemic index (GI) or low glycaemic load (GL) diets versus any other diet, Outcome 12: Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg)
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

Abete 2008 {published data only}
    1. Abete I, Parra D, Martinez JA. Energy-restricted diets based on a distinct food selection affecting the glycemic index induce different weight loss and oxidative response. Clinical Nutrition 2008;27(4):545-51. - PubMed
Armendariz‐Anguiano 2011 {published data only}
    1. Armendariz-Anguiano AL, Jimenez-Cruz A, Bacardi-Gascon M, Hurtado-Ayala L. Effect of a low glycemic load on body composition and Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) in overweight and obese subjects. Nutrición Hospitalaria 2011;26(1):170-5. - PubMed
Das 2007 {published data only}
    1. Cheatham RA, Roberts SB, Das SK, Gilhooly CH, Golden JK, Hyatt R, et al. Long-term effects of provided low and high glycemic load low energy diets on mood and cognition. Physiology & Behavior 2009;98(3):374-9. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Das SK, Gilhooly CH, Golden JK, Pittas A, Fuss PJ, Cheatham RA, et al. Long-term effects of 2 energy-restricted diets differing in glycemic load on dietary adherence, body composition, and metabolism in CALERIE: a 1-y randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2007;85(4):1023-30. - PubMed
    1. Das SK, Gilhooly CH, Golden JK, Pittas AG, Fuss PJ, Dallal GE, et al. Long term effects of energy-restricted diets differing in glycemic load on metabolic adaptation and body composition. Open Nutrition Journal 2007;85(4):1023-30. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Das SK, Saltzman E, Gilhooly CH, DeLany JP, Golden JK, Pittas AG, et al. Low or moderate dietary energy restriction for long-term weight loss: what works best? Obesity 2009;17(11):2019-24. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Karl JP, Cheatham RA, Das SK, Hyatt RR, Gilhooly CH, Pittas AG, et al. Effect of glycemic load on eating behavior self-efficacy during weight loss. Appetite 2014;80:204-11. - PMC - PubMed
Ebbeling 2007 {published data only}
    1. Ebbeling CB, Leidig MM, Feldman HA, Lovesky MM, Ludwig DS. Effects of a low–glycemic load vs low-fat diet in obese young adults. Journal of the American Medical Association 2007;297(19):2092-102. - PubMed
    1. NCT00130299. An 18-month trial of a low glycemic load diet. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00130299 (first posted 15 August 2005).
Gardner 2018 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Aronica L, Rigdon J, Offringa LC, Stefanick ML, Gardner CD. Examining differences between overweight women and men in 12-month weight loss study comparing healthy low-carbohydrate vs. low-fat diets. International Journal of Obesity 2021;45:225–34. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Gardner CD, Trepanowski JF, Del Gobbo LC, Hauser ME, Rigdon J, Ioannidis JP, et al. Effect of low-fat vs low-carbohydrate diet on 12-month weight loss in overweight adults and the association with genotype pattern or insulin secretion: the DIETFITS randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 2018;319(7):667-79. - PMC - PubMed
    1. NCT01826591. DIETFITS Study (Diet Intervention Examining the Factors Interacting With Treatment Success (DIETFITS). clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01826591 (first posted 8 April 2013).
    1. Offringa LC, Hartle JC, Rigdon J, Gardner CD. Changes in quantity and sources of dietary fiber from adopting healthy low-fat vs. healthy low-carb weight loss diets: secondary analysis of DIETFITS weight loss diet study. Nutrients 2021;13(10):3625. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Stanton MV, Robinson JL, Kirkpatrick SM, Farzinkhou S, Avery EC, Rigdon J, et al. DIETFITS study (Diet Intervention Examining The Factors Interacting with Treatment Success) - study design and methods. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2017;53:151-61. - PMC - PubMed
Goss 2013 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Goree LL, Chandler-Laney PC, Ellis AC, Casazza K, Granger WM, Gower BA. Dietary macronutrient composition affects β cell responsiveness but not insulin sensitivity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2011;94:120-7. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Goss AM, Goree LL, Ellis AC, Chandler-Laney PC, Casazza K, Lockhart ME, et al. Effects of diet macronutrient composition on body composition and fat distribution during weight maintenance and weight loss. Obesity 2013;21(6):1139-42. - PMC - PubMed
    1. NCT00726908. Intramuscular lipid and insulin action: ethnic aspects (QuEST). clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00726908 (first posted 1 August 2008).
McMillan‐Price 2006 {published data only}
    1. McMillan-Price J, Petocz P, Atkinson F, O'neill K, Samman S, Steinbeck K, et al. Comparison of 4 diets of varying glycemic load on weight loss and cardiovascular risk reduction in overweight and obese young adults: a randomized controlled trial. Archives of Internal Medicine 2006;166(14):1466-75. - PubMed
    1. NCT00254215. Glycemic load, weight loss and cardiovascular disease risk. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00254215 (first posted 15 November 2005).
Rouhani 2013 {published data only}
    1. IRCT201109272839N4. The effect of low glycemic diet on metabolic status and inflammation in obese girls. en.irct.ir/trial/2696 (first posted 08 November 2011).
    1. Rouhani MH, Kelishadi R, Hashemipour M, Esmaillzadeh A, Azadbakht L. The effect of an energy restricted low glycemic index diet on blood lipids, apolipoproteins and lipoprotein (a) among adolescent girls with excess weight: a randomized clinical trial. Lipids 2013;48(12):1197-205. - PubMed
    1. Rouhani MH, Kelishadi R, Hashemipour M, Esmaillzadeh A, Azadbakht L. The effect of low glycemic index diet on blood pressure and obesity among adolescent girls with excess weight. Journal of Babol University of Medical Sciences 2013;15(4):47-56.
    1. Rouhani MH, Kelishadi R, Hashemipour M, Esmaillzadeh A, Azadbakht L. The effect of low glycemic index diet on body weight status and blood pressure in overweight adolescent girls: a randomized clinical trial. Nutrition Research & Practice 2013;7(5):385-92. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Rouhani MH, Kelishadi R, Hashemipour M, Esmaillzadeh A, Surkan P J, Keshavarz A, Azadbakht L. The impact of a low glycemic index diet on inflammatory markers and serum adiponectin concentration in adolescent overweight and obese girls: a randomized clinical trial. Hormone & Metabolic Research 2016;48(4):251-6. - PubMed
Solomon 2010 {published data only}
    1. Kelly KR, Haus JM, Solomon TP, Patrick-Melin AJ, Cook M, Rocco M, et al. A low-glycemic index diet and exercise intervention reduces TNFa in isolated mononuclear cells of older, obese adults. Journal of Nutrition 2011;141:1089-94. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Kelly KR, Navaneethan SD, Solomon TP, Haus JM, Cook M, Barkoukis H, et al . Lifestyle-induced decrease in fat mass improves adiponectin secretion in obese adults. Medicine & Science in Sports & Excercise 2014;46(5):920–6. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Malin SK, Niemi N, Solomon TP, Haus JM, Kelly KR, Filion J, et al. Exercise training with weight loss and either a high- or low-glycemic index diet reduces metabolic syndrome severity in older adults. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2012;61(2):135-41. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Mulya A, Haus JM, Solomon TP, Kelly KR, Malin SK, Rocco M, et al. Exercise training-induced improvement in skeletal muscle PGC-1a-mediated fat metabolism is independent of dietary glycemic index. Obesity 2017;25(4):721-9. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Solomon TP, Haus JM, Cook M, Flask C, Kirwan JP. A low-glycemic diet lifestyle intervention improves fat utilization during exercise in older obese humans. Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.) 2013;21(11):2272–8. - PMC - PubMed
Venn 2010 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12605000537651. Comparative weight loss in overweight people randomly assigned to a diet high in wholegrains and legumes or to a control diet based on the New Zealand food pyramid. www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=563 (first posted 28 September 2005).
    1. Venn BJ, Perry T, Green TJ, Skeaff CM, Aitken W, Moore NJ, et al. The effect of increasing consumption of pulses and wholegrains in obese people: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 2010;29(4):365-72. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

ACTRN12609000307202 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12609000307202. Weight loss in overweight women study. www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=83828 (first posted 19 May 2009).
Agus 2000 {published data only}
    1. Agus MS, Swain JF, Larson CL, Eckert EA, Ludwig DS. Dietary composition and physiologic adaptations to energy restriction. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000;71(4):901-7. - PMC - PubMed
Armeno 2011 {published data only}
    1. Armeno ML, Krochik AG, Mazza CS. Evaluation of two dietary treatments in obese hyperinsulinemic adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism 2011;24(9-10):715-22. - PubMed
Aston 2008 {published data only}
    1. Aston LM, Stokes CS, Jebb SA. No effect of a diet with a reduced glycaemic index on satiety, energy intake and body weight in overweight and obese women. International Journal of Obesity 2008;32(1):160-5. - PMC - PubMed
Astrup 2013 {published data only}
    1. Astrup A, Damsgaard CT, Papadaki A, Jensen SM, Dalskov SM, Hlavaty P, et al. The use of an ad libitum higher-protein, low-glycemic index diet in overweight children: the Diogenes Study. FASEB Journal 2013;27:[no pagination].
    1. Astrup A. Optimal diet composition for weight loss and maintenance - What works? Obesity Research & Clinical Practice 2013;7:e1.
    1. McConnon A, Horgan GW, Lawton C, Stubbs J, Shepherd R, Astrup A, et al. Experience and acceptability of diets of varying protein content and glycemic index in an obese cohort: results from the Diogenes trial. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2013;67(9):990-5. - PubMed
    1. NCT00390637. Diet, obesity and genes (DiOGenes). clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00390637 (first posted 20 October 2006).
Ball 2003 {published data only}
    1. Ball SD, Keller KR, Moyer-Mileur LJ, Ding Y-W, Donaldson D, Jackson WD. Prolongation of satiety after low versus moderately high glycemic index meals in obese adolescents. Pediatrics 2003;111(3):488-94. - PubMed
Bellisle 2007 {published data only}
    1. Bellisle F, Dalix AM, De Assis MA, Kupek E, Gerwig U, Slama G, et al. Motivational effects of 12-week moderately restrictive diets with or without special attention to the glycaemic index of foods. British Journal of Nutrition 2007;97(4):790-8. - PubMed
Bouche 2002 {published data only}
    1. Bouche C, Rizkalla SW, Luo J, Vidal H, Veronese A, Pacher N et al. Five-week, low-glycemic index diet decreases total fat mass and improves plasma lipid profile in moderately overweight nondiabetic men. Diabetes Care 2002;25(5):822-8. - PubMed
Breymeyer 2016 {published data only}
    1. Breymeyer KL, Lampe JW, McGregor BA, Neuhouser ML. Subjective mood and energy levels of healthy weight and overweight/obese healthy adults on high-and low-glycemic load experimental diets. Appetite 2016;107:253-9. - PMC - PubMed
Buscemi 2013 {published data only}
    1. Buscemi S, Cosentino L, Rosafio G, Morgana M, Mattina A, Sprini D, et al. Effects of hypocaloric diets with different glycemic indexes on endothelial function and glycemic variability in overweight and in obese adult patients at increased cardiovascular risk. Clinical Nutrition 2013;32(3):346-52. - PubMed
Chang 2012 {published data only}
    1. Chang KT, Lampe JW, Schwarz Y, Breymeyer KL, Noar KA, Song X, et al. Low glycemic load experimental diet more satiating than high glycemic load diet. Nutrition & Cancer 2012;64(5):666-73. - PMC - PubMed
ChiCTR1800016786 {published data only}
    1. ChiCTR1800016786. Application of continuous glucose monitoring and actigraph to compare the effectiveness of low-carbon diet and exercise in overweight/obese population. www.who.int/trialsearch/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ChiCTR1800016786 (first posted 24 June 2018).
Clapp 1998 {published data only}
    1. Clapp J. Diet, exercise and feto-placental growth. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics 1997;261:101-7.
Dumesnil 2001 {published data only}
    1. Dumesnil JG, Turgeon J, Tremblay A, Poirier P, Gilbert M, Gagnon L, et al. Effect of a low-glycaemic index--low-fat--high protein diet on the atherogenic metabolic risk profile of abdominally obese men. British Journal of Nutrition 2001;86(5):557-68. - PubMed
Ebbeling 2003 {published data only}
    1. Ebbeling CB, Leidig MM, Sinclair KB, Hangen JP, Ludwig DS. A reduced-glycemic load diet in the treatment of adolescent obesity. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2003;157(8):773-9. - PubMed
Ebbeling 2005 {published data only}
    1. Ebbeling CB, Leidig MM, Sinclair KB, Seger-Shippee LG, Feldman HA, Ludwig DS. Effects of an ad libitum low-glycemic load diet on cardiovascular disease risk factors in obese young adults. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005;81(5):976-82. - PubMed
Fechner 2020 {published data only}
    1. Fechner E, Eyndt CO, Mulder T, Mensink RP. Diet-induced differences in estimated plasma glucose concentrations in healthy, non-diabetic adults are detected by continuous glucose monitoring-a randomized crossover trial. Nutrition Research 2020;80:36-43. - PubMed
Giardina 2017 {published data only}
    1. Giardina S, Sala-Vila A, Alonso P, Calvo C, Sala-Salvado J, Bullo M. Quality and quantity of carbohydrate affects the composition of erythrocyte fatty acid membrane in overweight and obese subjects. Obesity Facts 2017;10:139.
Handjieva‐Darlenska 2014 {published data only}
    1. Handjieva-Darlenska T, Karamfilova VN, Kamenov ZA, Boyadjieva NI. The effect of diets with low vs. high glycemic index on plasma levels of leptin and ghrelin in obese patients. Endokrinologya 2014;19(4):221-31.
Hernandez‐Alonso 2019 {published data only}
    1. Hernandez-Alonso P, Giardina S, Canueto D, Salas-Salvado J, Canellas N, Bullo M. Changes in plasma metabolite concentrations after a low-glycemic index diet intervention. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 2019;63(1):e1700975. - PubMed
    1. Hernandez-Alonso P, Giardina S, Canueto D, Salas-Salvado J, Canellas N, Bullo M. Modulation of plasma metabolites following a low-glycemic index diet. European Journal of Clinical Investigation 2018;48:[no pagination].
Hjorth 2017 {published data only}
    1. Hjorth MF, Ritz C, Blaak EE, Saris WH, Langin D, Poulsen SK, et al. Pretreatment fasting plasma glucose and insulin modify dietary weight loss success: results from 3 randomized clinical trials. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2017;106(2):499-505. - PubMed
Hu 2020 {published data only}
    1. Hu JR, Wu Y, Sacks FM, Appel LJ, Miller ER, Young JH, et al. Effects of carbohydrate quality and amount on plasma lactate: results from the OmniCarb trial. BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care 2020;8(1):e001457. - PMC - PubMed
    1. NCT00608049. Effect of amount and type of dietary carbohydrates on risk for cardiovascular heart disease and diabetes. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00608049 (first posted 6 February 2008).
ISRCTN56834511 {published data only}
    1. ISRCTN56834511. Effects of hypocaloric diets at different glucose load on endothelial function and glycaemic variability in adult obese subjects with increased cardiovascular risk. www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN56834511 (26 November 2010).
Jaffe 2007 {published data only}
    1. Jaffe R B. Comparison of the Atkins, Zone, Ornish, and LEARN diets for change in weight and related risk factors among overweight premenopausal women. The A to Z weight loss study: a randomized trial. Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey 2007;62(7):454-6. - PubMed
Jakicic 2015 {published data only}
    1. Jakicic JM, King WC, Marcus MD, Davis KK, Helsel D, Rickman AD, et al. Short-term weight loss with diet and physical activity in young adults: the IDEA study. Obesity 2015;23(12):2385-97. - PMC - PubMed
Jebb 2010 {published data only}
    1. Jebb SA, Lovegrove JA, Griffin BA, Frost GS, Moore CS, Chatfield MD, et al. Effect of changing the amount and type of fat and carbohydrate on insulin sensitivity and cardiovascular risk: the RISCK. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2010;92(4):748-58. - PMC - PubMed
Jenkins 1987 {published data only}
    1. Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Collier GR, Ocana A, Rao AV, Buckley G, et al. Metabolic effects of a low-glycemic-index diet. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1987;46(6):968-75. - PubMed
Juraschek 2016 {published data only}
    1. Juraschek SP, Chang AR, Appel LJ, Anderson CA, Crews DC, Thomas L, et al. Effect of glycemic index and carbohydrate intake on kidney function in healthy adults. BMC Nephrology 2016;17(1):70. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Juraschek SP, McAdams-Demarco M, Gelber AC, Sacks FM, Appel LJ, White KJ, et al. Effects of lowering glycemic index of dietary carbohydrate on plasma uric acid levels: the OmniCarb randomized clinical trial. Arthritis & Rheumatology 2016;68(5):1281-9. - PMC - PubMed
Karl 2015 {published data only}
    1. Karl J, Schaefer E, Fuss P, Das SK, Saltzman E, Roberts S. Dietary glycemic index does not influence adaptation of resting energy expenditure during weight loss. FASEB Journal 2014;28:[no pagination].
    1. Karl JP, Roberts SB, Schaefer EJ, Gleason JA, Fuss P, Rasmussen H, et al. Effects of carbohydrate quantity and glycemic index on resting metabolic rate and body composition during weight loss. Obesity 2015;23(11):2190-8. - PMC - PubMed
Kirk 2012 {published data only}
    1. Kirk S, Brehm B, Saelens BE, Woo JG, Kissel E, D'Alessio D, et al. Role of carbohydrate modification in weight management among obese children: a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Pediatrics 2012;161(2):320-7.e1. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Kirk S, Woo JG, Brehm B, Daniels SR, Saelens BE. Changes in eating behaviors of children with obesity in response to carbohydrate-modified and portion-controlled diets. Childhood Obesity 2017;13(5):377-83. - PMC - PubMed
    1. NCT00215111. Role of carbohydrate modification in weight management among obese children. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00215111 (first posted 22 September 2005).
Klemsdal 2010 {published data only}
    1. Klemsdal TO, Holme I, Nerland H, Pedersen TR, Tonstad S. Effects of a low glycemic load diet versus a low-fat diet in subjects with and without the metabolic syndrome. Nutrition Metabolism & Cardiovascular Diseases 2010;20(3):195-201. - PubMed
Kong 2014 {published data only}
    1. Kong AP, Choi KC, Chan RS, Lok K, Ozaki R, Li AM, et al. A randomized controlled trial to investigate the impact of a low glycemic index (GI) diet on body mass index in obese adolescents. BMC Public Health 2014;14:180. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Kong AS, Choi KC, Chan R, Ozaki R, Ma RC, Cheung KK, et al. A 12-month randomized controlled trial to investigate the impact of a low glycemic index (GI) diet on obesity indices in adolescents. Endocrine Reviews 2014;35:[no pagination].
Krog‐Mikkelsen 2011 {published data only}
    1. Krog-Mikkelsen I, Sloth B, Dimitrov D, Tetens I, Bjorck I, Flint A, et al. A low glycemic index diet does not affect postprandial energy metabolism but decreases postprandial insulinemia and increases fullness ratings in healthy women. Journal of Nutrition 2011;141(9):1679-84. - PubMed
Maki 2007 {published data only}
    1. Maki KC, Rains TM, Kaden VN, Raneri KR, Davidson MH. Effects of a reduced-glycemic-load diet on body weight, body composition, and cardiovascular disease risk markers in overweight and obese adults. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2007;85(3):724-34. - PubMed
Mediano 2012 {published data only}
    1. Mediano MF, Sichieri R. Insulin resistance predicts the effectiveness of different glycemic index diets on weight loss in non-obese women. Obesity Facts 2012;5(5):641-7. - PMC - PubMed
Melanson 2012 {published data only}
    1. Melanson KJ, Summers A, Nguyen V, Brosnahan J, Lowndes J, Angelopoulos TJ, et al. Body composition, dietary composition, and components of metabolic syndrome in overweight and obese adults after a 12-week trial on dietary treatments focused on portion control, energy density, or glycemic index. Nutrition Journal 2012;11:57. - PMC - PubMed
Mirza 2013 {published data only}
    1. Mirza NM, Klein CJ, Palmer MG, McCarter R, He J, Ebbeling CB, et al. Effects of high and low glycemic load meals on energy intake, satiety and hunger in obese Hispanic-American youth. International Journal of Pediatric Obesity 2011;6(2-2):e523-31. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Mirza NM, Palmer MG, Sinclair KB, McCarter R, He J, Ebbeling CB. Effects of a low glycemic load or a low-fat dietary intervention on body weight in obese Hispanic American children and adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2013;97(2):276-85. - PMC - PubMed
Mogul 2016 {published data only}
    1. Mogul H, Freeman RG, Nguyen K, Scherer PE. Carbohydrate modified diet and insulin sensitizers reduced android to gynoid fat ratio at 12 months in EMPOWIR (enhance the metabolic profile of women with insulin resistance): a double blind, placebo controlled randomized trial of normoglycemic women with midlife weight gain. Endocrine Reviews 2016;37(2):[no pagination]. - PubMed
NCT00143936 {published data only}
    1. NCT00143936. Safety and efficacy of low and high carbohydrate diets. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00143936 (first posted 2 September 2005).
NCT00147264 {published data only}
    1. NCT00147264. Telmisartan-induced reduction in intra-myocellular lipids trial. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00147264 (first posted 7 September 2005).
NCT00324090 {published data only}
    1. NCT00324090. Glycemic index, body weight and health. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00324090 (first posted 10 May 2006).
NCT00477477 {published data only}
    1. NCT00477477. Nutritional treatment of overweight adolescents with cardiovascular risk factors (PowerUp). clinicaltrials.gov/show/nct00477477 (first posted 23 May 2007).
NCT00603655 {published data only}
    1. NCT00603655. Effect of glycemic load on body composition. www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00603655 (first posted 29 January 2008).
NCT01010841 {published data only}
    1. NCT01010841. Trial of two dietary programs on cardiometabolic risk factors in subjects with metabolic syndrome. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01010841 (first posted 10 November 2009).
NCT01206413 {published data only}
    1. NCT01206413. A randomized clinical trial of home-based exercise combined with a slight caloric restriction on obesity prevention among women. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01206413 (first posted 21 September 2010). - PMC - PubMed
NCT01255228 {published data only}
    1. NCT01255228. Effect of low glycemic index diet on body composition and mechanism of obese women. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01255228 (first posted 7 December 2010).
NCT01358890 {published data only}
    1. NCT01358890. Low-carbohydrate diet intervention on body weight. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01358890 (first posted 24 May 2011).
NCT01476436 {published data only}
    1. NCT01476436. Low carbohydrate diet - effect on plasma lipids and metabolic markers. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01476436 (first posted 22 November 2011).
NCT01737034 {published data only}
    1. NCT01737034. A low glycemic index diet as prevention of the catch-up fat phenomenon. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01737034 (first posted 29 November 2012).
NCT02630524 {published data only}
    1. NCT02630524. Diet composition and cardiometabolic risk reduction in adults with SCI. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02630524 (first posted 15 December 2015).
NCT04145466 {published data only}
    1. NCT04145466. The personalized nutrition study. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04145466 (first posted 30 October 2019).
NCT04581421 {published data only}
    1. NCT04581421. The role of dietary carbohydrate and fat availability in the regulation of hepatic lipid content. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04581421 (first posted 9 October 2020).
Padwal 2007 {published data only}
    1. Padwal R. The Atkins diet led to more weight loss than the Zone diet in overweight and obese premenopausal women at 12 months. Evidence-Based Medicine 2007;12(5):138. - PubMed
Pereira 2005 {published data only}
    1. Pereira MA, Swain J, Goldfine AB, Rifai N, Ludwig DS. Effects of a low-glycemic load diet on resting energy expenditure and heart disease risk factors during weight loss. Journal of the American Medical Association 2004;292(20):2482-90. - PubMed
Philippou 2008 {published data only}
    1. Philippou E, McGowan BM, Brynes AE, Dornhorst A, Leeds AR, Frost GS. The effect of a 12-week low glycaemic index diet on heart disease risk factors and 24 h glycaemic response in healthy middle-aged volunteers at risk of heart disease: a pilot study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008;62(1):145-9. - PubMed
Piatti 1993 {published data only}
    1. Piatti PM, Pontiroli AE, Saibene A, Santambrogio G, Paroni R, Magni F, et al. Insulin sensitivity and lipid levels in obese subjects after slimming diets with different complex and simple carbohydrate content. International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders 1993;17(7):375-81. - PubMed
Polacek 2006 {published data only}
    1. Polacek GN, DeSola B. The effects of glycemic load and exercise on overweight/obesity in college students. Californian Journal of Health Promotion 2006;4(1):75-82.
Rajabi 2015 {published data only}
    1. Rajabi S, Mazloom Z, Zamani A, Tabatabaee HR. Effect of low glycemic index diet versus metformin on metabolic syndrome. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 2015;13(4):e23091. - PMC - PubMed
Rhodes 2017 {published data only}
    1. Rhodes ET, Vernacchio L, Mitchell AA, Fischer C, Giacalone P, Ludwig DS, et al. A telephone intervention to achieve differentiation in dietary intake: a randomized trial in paediatric primary care. Pediatric Obesity 2017;12(6):494-501. - PMC - PubMed
Rizkalla 2012 {published data only}
    1. Rizkalla SW, Prifti E, Cotillard A, Pelloux V, Rouault C, Allouche R, et al. Differential effects of macronutrient content in 2 energy-restricted diets on cardiovascular risk factors and adipose tissue cell size in moderately obese individuals: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2012;95(1):49-63. - PubMed
Sacks 2014 {published data only}
    1. Sacks FM, Carey VJ, Anderson CA, Miller ER 3rd, Copeland T, Charleston J, et al. Effects of high vs low glycemic index of dietary carbohydrate on cardiovascular disease risk factors and insulin sensitivity: the OmniCarb randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 2014;312(23):2531-41. - PMC - PubMed
Salinardi 2012 {published data only}
    1. NCT01470222. The healthy weight for life program (HWL). clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01470222 (first posted 11 November 2011).
    1. Salinardi TC, Batra P, Roberts SB, Urban LE, Robinson LM, Pittas AG, et al. Lifestyle intervention reduces body weight and improves cardiometabolic risk factors in worksites. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2013;97(4):667-76. - PMC - PubMed
Saraf‐Bank 2016 {published data only}
    1. Saraf-Bank S, Esmaillzadeh A, Faghihimani E, Azadbakht L. Effects of legume-enriched diet on cardiometabolic risk factors among individuals at risk for diabetes: a crossover study. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 2016;35(1):31-40. - PubMed
Schwarzfuchs 2012 {published data only}
    1. Schwarzfuchs D, Golan R, Shai I. Four-year follow-up after two-year dietary interventions. New England Journal of Medicine 2012;367(14):1373-4. - PubMed
Shyam 2014 {published data only}
    1. Shyam S, Arshad F, Abdul Ghani R, Abdul Wahab N, Barakatun Nisak M, Safii N, et al. Women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus achieve clinically significant weight loss on low glycaemic index diets. Obesity Reviews 2014;15:92.
    1. Shyam S, Arshad F, Abdul Ghani R, Wahab NA, Safii NS, Nisak MY, et al. Low glycaemic index diets improve glucose tolerance and body weight in women with previous history of gestational diabetes: a six months randomized trial. Nutrition Journal 2013;12:68. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Shyam S, Arshad F, Ghani R A, Wahab N A, Mohd Yusof B N, Safii N S, et al. Low glycaemic index diet aids management of fasting blood sugar and body weight in Asian women with previous history of gestational diabetes mellitus. Journal of Diabetes 2013;5:27.
Sichieri 2007 {published data only}
    1. Sichieri R, Moura AS, Genelhu V, Hu F, Willett WC. An 18-mo randomized trial of a low-glycemic-index diet and weight change in Brazilian women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2007;86(3):707-13. - PubMed
Sloth 2004 {published data only}
    1. Sloth B, Krog-Mikkelsen I, Flint A, Tetens I, Bjorck I, Vinoy S, et al. No difference in body weight decrease between a low-glycemic-index and a high-glycemic-index diet but reduced LDL cholesterol after 10-wk ad libitum intake of the low-glycemic-index diet. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2004;80(2):337-47. - PubMed
Sun 2019 {published data only}
    1. Sun J, Xu N, Lin N, Wu P, Yuan K, An S, et al. Optimal weight loss effect of short-term low carbohydrate diet with calorie restriction on overweight/obese subjects in South China—a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Diabetes 2019;68(Suppl 1):317–LB.
Van  2014 {published data only}
    1. Van BM. 24-hour glucose profiles on diets varying in protein content and glycemic index. Nutrients 2014;6(8):3050-61. - PMC - PubMed
Van Horn 1986 {published data only}
    1. Van Horn LV, Liu K, Parker D, Emidy L, Liao Y, Pan WH, et al. Serum lipid response to oat product intake with a fat-modified diet. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1986;86(6):759-64. - PubMed
Walilko 2013 {published data only}
    1. Walilko E, Napierala MU, Bryskiewicz ME, Majkowska L. Influence of short-term high-protein diet and low glycemic index diet on body mass and composition in overweight and obese subjects. Diabetes 2013;62:A195-A196.
Weaver 2007 {published data only}
    1. Weaver K. The Atkins diet led to more weight loss than the Zone diet in overweight and obese premenopausal women at 12 months. Evidence-Based Nursing 2007;10(4):111-111. - PubMed
Wolever 2002 {published data only}
    1. Wolever TM, Mehling C. High-carbohydrate-low-glycaemic index dietary advice improves glucose disposition index in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. British Journal of Nutrition 2002;87(5):477-87. - PubMed
    1. Wolever TM, Mehling C. Long-term effect of varying the source or amount of dietary carbohydrate on postprandial plasma glucose, insulin, triacylglycerol, and free fatty acid concentrations in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003;77(3):612-21. - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

Chavez 2017 {published data only}
    1. Chavez PC, Larrosa HA, Romero VE, Lopez-Uriarte PJ. Efficacy of a modified carbohydrate diet in obese women. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 2017;71:1034.
NCT00940966 {published data only}
    1. NCT00940966. A pilot study to determine the efficacy of a low carbohydrate diet in treatment of adolescents with metabolic syndrome. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00940966 (first posted 17 July 2009).
NCT01303757 {published data only}
    1. NCT01303757. A novel diet-phenotype interaction affecting body weight (FRESH Start). clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01303757 (first posted 17 July 2009).
NCT01755962 {published data only}
    1. NCT01755962. Glycemic load & resistance training on endothelial function & insulin sensitivity (GET FIT). clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01755962 (first posted 24 December 2012).
Slabber 1994 {published data only}
    1. Slabber M, Barnard HC, Kuyl JM, Dannhauser A, Schall R. Effects of a low-insulin-response, energy-restricted diet on weight loss and plasma insulin concentrations in hyperinsulinemic obese females. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1994;60(1):48-53. - PubMed

References to ongoing studies

CTRI/2020/11/029252 {published data only}
    1. CTRI/2020/11/029252. Low glycemic diet in obese children. www.ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pmaindet2.php?trialid=48734 (first posted 19 November 2020).

Additional references

Altman 2003
    1. Altman DG, Bland JM. Interaction revisited: the difference between two estimates. BMJ 2003;326(7382):219. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
Armendariz 2011
    1. Armendariz AL, Cruz AJ, Gasco B, Hurtado L . Effect of a low glycemic load on body composition and Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) in overweight and obese subjects. Nutricion Hospitalaria 2011;26(1):170-5. - PubMed
Atkinson 2008
    1. Atkinson FS, Foster-Powell K, Brand-Miller JC. International tables of glycemic index and glycemic load values. Diabetes Care 2008;31:2281-3. - PMC - PubMed
Aune 2016
    1. Aune D, Sen A, Prasad M, Norat T, Janszky I, Tonstad S. BMI and all cause mortality: systematic review and non-linear dose-response meta-analysis of 230 cohort studies with 3.74 million deaths among 30.3 million participants. BMJ 2016;353:i2156. - PMC - PubMed
Barclay 2008
    1. Barclay AW, Petocz P, McMillan-Price J, Flood VM, Prvan T, Paul M, et al. Glycemic index, glycemic load, and chronic disease risk—a meta-analysis of observational studies. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008;87(3):627-37. - PubMed
Bell 2015
    1. Bell KJ, Smart CE, Steil GM, Brand-Miller JC, King B, Wolpert HA. Impact of fat, protein, and glycemic index on postprandial glucose control in type 1 diabetes: implications for intensive diabetes management in the continuous glucose monitoring era. Diabetes Care 2015;38(6):1008-15. - PubMed
Bhaskaran 2014
    1. Bhaskaran K, Douglas I, Forbes H, dos-Santos-Silva I, Leon DA, Smeeth L. Body-mass index and risk of 22 specific cancers: a population-based cohort study of 5.24 million UK adults. Lancet 2014;384(9945):755-65. - PMC - PubMed
Blaak 2012
    1. Blaak EE, Antoine JM, Benton D, Bjorck I, Bozzetto L, Brouns F, et al. Impact of postprandial glycaemia on health and prevention of disease. Obesity Reviews 2012;13(10):923-84. - PMC - PubMed
Bradshaw 2019
    1. Bradshaw JM, Ensor S, Lorenz H, Spence C, Hucker G. Underestimating the true impact of obesity. Lancet Public Health 2019;4(1):e16. - PubMed
Brand‐Miller 2002
    1. Brand-Miller JC, Holt SH, Pawlak DB, McMillan J. Glycemic index and obesity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2002;76(1):281S-5S. - PubMed
Bravata 2003
    1. Bravata OD, Sanders L, Huang J, Krumholz HM, Olkin I, Gardner CD, et al. Efficacy and safety of low-carbohydrate diets: a systematic review. JAMA 2003;289(14):1837-50. - PubMed
Bray 2017
    1. Bray GA, Kim KK, Wilding JP. Obesity: a chronic relapsing progressive disease process. A position statement of the World Obesity Federation. Obesity Reviews 2017;18(7):715-23. - PubMed
Brunstein 2016
    1. Braunstein CR, Mejia SB, Stoiko E, Noronha JC, Choo V, Vanessa HA, et al. Effect of low-glycemic index/load diets on body weight: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Canadian Journal of Diabetes 2016;40(5):39.
Buch 2011
    1. Buch MH, Aletaha D, Emery P, Smolen JS. Reporting of long-term extension studies: lack of consistency calls for consensus. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 2011;70(6):886-90. - PubMed
Burkitt 1977
    1. Burkitt DP, Trowell HC. Dietary fibre and western diseases. Irish Medical Journal 1977;70(9):272-7. - PubMed
CDC 2020
    1. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Losing weight. www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/losing_weight/index.html (accessed 7 April 2020).
CDC 2021
    1. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Defining childhood weight status. www.cdc.gov/obesity/childhood/defining.html (accessed 14 October 2021).
Chang 2012
    1. Chang KT, Lampe JW, Schwarz Y, Breymeyer KL, Noar KA, Song X, et al. Low glycemic load experimental diet more satiating than high glycemic load diet. Nutrition and Cancer 2012;64(5):666‐73. - PMC - PubMed
Cochrane 2020
    1. Cochrane. How CENTRAL is created. www.cochranelibrary.com/central/central-creation (accessed 25 April 2020).
CONSORT 2020
    1. Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT). The CONSORT statement. www.consort-statement.org (accessed 25 April 2020).
Corbett 2014
    1. Corbett MS, Higgins JP, Woolacott NF. Assessing baseline imbalance in randomised trials: implications for the Cochrane risk of bias tool. Research Synthesis Methods 2014;5:79-85. - PubMed
Deeks 2022
    1. Deeks JJ, Higgins JP, Altman DG (editors). Chapter 10: Analysing data and undertaking meta-analyses. In: Higgins JP, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, Welch VA (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.3 (updated February 2022). Cochrane, 2022. Available from www.training.cochrane.org/handbook.
Dwivedi 2022
    1. Dwivedi AK, Dubey P, Reddy SY, Clegg DJ. Associations of glycemic index and glycemic load with cardiovascular disease: updated evidence from meta-analysis and cohort studies. Current Cardiology Reports 2022;24(3):141-61. - PubMed
FAO/WHO 1997
    1. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee. Carbohydrates in Human Nutrition (FAO Food and Nutrition Paper - 66); April 1997. Available at: www.fao.org/3/w8079e/w8079e00.htm (accessed prior to 4 May 2023).
Gargallo 2012
    1. Gargallo FM, Marset JB, Lesmes IB, Izquierdo JQ, Sala XF, Salas-Salvado J, et al. FESNAD-SEEDO consensus summary: evidence-based nutritional recommendations for the prevention and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults. Endocrinología y Nutrición 2012;59(7):429-37. - PubMed
GIF 2017a
    1. Glycemic Index Foundation (GIF). What is GI? www.gisymbol.com/about-glycemic-index/ (accessed January 2020).
GIF 2017b
    1. Glycemic Index Foundation (GIF). What about glycemic load? www.gisymbol.com/what-about-glycemic-load/ (accessed January 2020).
Hamdy 2018
    1. Hamdy O, Tasabehji MW, Elseaidy T, Tomah S, Ashrafzadeh S, Mottalib A. Fat versus carbohydrate-based energy-restricted diets for weight loss in patients with type 2 diabetes. Current Diabetes Reports 2018;18(12):128. - PMC - PubMed
Hardy 2020
    1. Hardy DS, Garvin JT, Xu H. Carbohydrate quality, glycemic index, glycemic load and cardiometabolic risks in the US, Europe and Asia: a dose-response meta-analysis. Nutrition, Metabolism & Cardiovascular Diseases 2020;30(6):853-71. - PubMed
Hartley 2016
    1. Hartley L, May MD, Loveman E, Colquitt JL, Rees K. Dietary fibre for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2016, Issue 1. Art. No: CD011472. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD011472.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Higgins 2011
    1. Higgins JP, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from training.cochrane.org/handbook/archive/v5.1/ 2011.
Hirsch 2005
    1. Hirsch IB, Brownlee M. Should minimal blood glucose variability become the gold standard of glycemic control? Journal of Diabetic Complications 2005;19(3):178-81. - PubMed
Hlebowicz 2007
    1. Hlebowicz J, Darwiche G, Björgell O, Almér L-O. Effect of apple cider vinegar on delayed gastric emptying in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus: a pilot study. BMC Gastroenterology 2007;7(46):[no pagination]. - PMC - PubMed
Hoffmann 2014
    1. Hoffmann TC, Glasziou PP, Boutron I, Milne R, Perera R, Moher D, et al. Better reporting of interventions: template for intervention description and replication (TIDieR) checklist and guide. BMJ 2014;348:g1687. - PubMed
Hoffmann 2017
    1. Hoffmann TC, Oxman AD, Ioannidis JP, Moher D, Lasserson TJ, Tovey DI, et al. Enhancing the usability of systematic reviews by improving the consideration and description of interventions. BMJ 2017;358:j2998. - PubMed
Hozo 2005
    1. Hozo SP, Djulbegovic B, Hozo I. Estimating the mean and variance from the median, range, and the size of a sample. BMC Medical Research Methodology 2005;5:13. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-2288-5-13] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
International Diabetes Federation 2021
    1. International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas 2021. diabetesatlas.org/regional-factsheets/ (accessed 9 November 2022).
Jenkins 1981
    1. Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Taylor RH, Barker H, Fielden H, Baldwin JM, et al. Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1981;34(3):362-6. - PubMed
Jenkins 1995
    1. Jenkins DJ, Jenkins AL. Nutrition Principles and Diabetes. Diabetes Care 1995;18(11):1491-8. - PubMed
Jenkins 2002
    1. Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Augustin LS, Franceschi S, Hamidi M, Marchie A. Glycemic index: overview of implications in health and disease. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2002;76(Suppl):266S–73S. - PubMed
Juanola‐Falgarona 2014
    1. Juanola-Falgarona M, Salas-Salvado J, Ibarrola-Jurado N, Rabassa-Soler A, Diaz-Lopez A, Guasch-Ferre M, et al. Effect of the glycemic index of the diet on weight loss, modulation of satiety, inflammation, and other metabolic risk factors: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2014;100(1):27-35. - PubMed
Kalra 2013
    1. Kalra S. Diabesity. Journal of Pakistan Medical Association 2013;63(4):532-4. - PubMed
Kasen 2008
    1. Kasen S, Cohen P, Chen H, Must A. Obesity and psychopathology in women: a three decade prospective study. International Journal of Obesity 2008;32(3):558-66. - PubMed
Kiens 1996
    1. Kiens B, Richter EA. Types of carbohydrate in an ordinary diet affect insulin action and muscle substrates in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1996;63(1):47-53. - PubMed
Knell 2018
    1. Knell G, Li Q, Pettee Gabriel K, Shuval K. Long-term weight loss and metabolic health in adults concerned with maintaining or losing weight: findings from NHANES. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 2018;93(11):1611-6. - PMC - PubMed
Lan‐Pidhainy 2011
    1. Lan-Pidhainy X, Wolever T. Are the glycemic and insulinemic index values of carbohydrate foods similar in healthy control, hyperinsulinemic and type 2 diabetic patients? European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2011;65(6):727-34. - PubMed
Lefebvre 2022
    1. Lefebvre C, Glanville J, Briscoe S, Featherstone R, Littlewood A, Marshall C, et al. Chapter 4: Searching for and selecting studies. In: Higgins JP, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, Welch VA (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.3 (updated February 2022). Cochrane, 2022. Available from www.training.cochrane.org/handbook.
Leitner  2017
    1. Leitner DR, Frühbeck G, Yumuk V, Schindler K, Micic D, Woodward E, et al. Obesity and type 2 diabetes: two diseases with a need for combined treatment strategies - EASO can lead the way. Obesity Facts 2017;10(5):483-92. - PMC - PubMed
Lennerz 2013
    1. Lennerz BS, Alsop DC, Holsen LM, Stern E, Rojas R, Ebbeling CB, et al. Effects of dietary glycemic index on brain regions related to reward and craving in men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2013;98(3):641‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Livesey 2008
    1. Livesey G, Taylor R, Hulshof T, Howlett J. Glycemic response and health--a systematic review and meta-analysis: the database, study characteristics, and macronutrient intakes. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008;87(1):223S-36S. - PubMed
Luppino 2010
    1. Luppino FS, De wit LM, Bouvy PF, Stijnen T, Cuijpers P, Penninx BW, et al. Overweight, obesity, and depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Archives of General Psychiatry 2010;67(3):220-9. - PubMed
Magkos 2016
    1. Magkos F, Fraterrigo G, Yoshino J, Luecking C, Kirbach K, Kelly SC, et al. Effects of moderate and subsequent progressive weight loss on metabolic function and adipose tissue biology in humans with obesity. Cell Metabolism 2016;23(4):591-601. - PMC - PubMed
Megan 2012
    1. Megan B, Pickering RM, Weatherall M. Design, objectives, execution and reporting of published open-label extension studies. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 2012;18(2):209-15. - PubMed
Mirmiran 2021
    1. Mirmiran P, Bahadoran Z, Gaeini Z. Common limitations and challenges of dietary clinical trials for translation into clinical practices. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 2021;19(3):e108170. - PMC - PubMed
Mongraw‐Chaffin 2015
    1. Mongraw-Chaffin ML, Peters SA, Huxley RR, Woodward M. The sex-specific association between BMI and coronary heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 95 cohorts with 1.2 million participants. Lancet Diabetes and Endocrinology 2015;3(6):437-49. - PMC - PubMed
Mueller 2012
    1. Mueller NT, Odegaard AO, Gross MD, Koh WP, Yu MC, Yuan JM, et al. Soy intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in Chinese Singaporeans [corrected]. European Journal of Nutrition 2012;51(8):1033-40. - PMC - PubMed
Nyberg 2018
    1. Nyberg ST, Batty GD, Pentti J, Virtanen M, Alfredsson L, Fransson EI, et al. Obesity and loss of disease-free years owing to major non-communicable diseases: a multicohort study. Lancet Public Health 2018;3(10):e490-e7. - PMC - PubMed
Page 2021
    1. Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 2021;372:n71. [DOI: 10.1136/bmj.n71] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Pardo 2019
    1. Pardo F, Subiabre M, Fuentes G, Toledo F, Silva L, Villalobos-Labra R, et al. Altered foetoplacental vascular endothelial signalling to insulin in diabesity. Molecular Aspects of Medicine 2019;66:40-8. - PubMed
Penckofer 2012
    1. Penckofer S, Quinn L, Byrn M, Ferrans C, Miller M, Strange P. Does glycemic variability impact mood and quality of life? Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics 2012;14(4):303-10. - PMC - PubMed
Pereira 2015
    1. Pereira EV, Costa JD, Alfenas RD. Effect of glycemic index on obesity control. Archives of Endocrinology and Metabolism 2015;59(3):245-51. - PubMed
Philippou 2009
    1. Philippou E, Bovill C, Rajkumar C, Vampa ML, Ntatsaki E, Brynes AE, et al. Preliminary report: the effect of a 6-month dietary glycemic index manipulation in addition to healthy eating advice and weight loss on arterial compliance and 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure in men: a pilot study. Metabolism 2009;58(12):1703-08. - PubMed
Quek 2016
    1. Quek R, Bi X, Henry CJ. Impact of protein-rich meals on glycaemic response of rice. British Journal of Nutrition 2016;115(7):1194-201. - PubMed
Review Manager 2020 [Computer program]
    1. Review Manager 5 (RevMan 5). Version 5.4. Copenhagen: Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2020.
Rizzo 2010
    1. Rizzo MR, Marfella R, Barbieri M, Boccardi V, Vestini F, Lettieri B, et al. Relationships between daily acute glucose fluctuations and cognitive performance among aged type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 2010;33(10):2169-74. - PMC - PubMed
Roberts 2003
    1. Roberts RE, Deleger S, Strawbridge WJ, Kaplan GA. Prospective association between obesity and depression: evidence from the Alameda County Study. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 2003;27(4):514-21. - PubMed
Rouhani 2014
    1. Rouhani MH, Kelishadi R, Hashemipour M, Esmaillzadeh A, Azadbakht L. Glycemic index, glycemic load and childhood obesity: a systematic review. Advanced Biomedical Research 2014;3(47):[no pagination]. - PMC - PubMed
Salari‐Moghaddam 2019
    1. Salari-Moghaddam A, Keshteli AH, Haghighatdoost F, Esmaillzadeh A, Adibi P. Dietary glycemic index and glycemic load in relation to general obesity and central adiposity among adults. Clinical Nutrition 2019;38(6):2936-42. - PubMed
Salmeron 1997
    1. Salmeron J, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Coldits GA, Wing AL, Willett WC. Dietary fiber, glycemic load,and risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. JAMA 1997;277:472-7. - PubMed
Santesso 2020
    1. Santesso N, Glenton C, Dahm P, Garner P, Akl EA, Alper B, et al. GRADE guidelines 26: informative statements to communicate the findings of systematic reviews of interventions. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2020;119:126-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2019.10.014] - DOI - PubMed
Scherer 2018
    1. Scherer RW, Meerpohl JJ, Pfeifer N, Schmucker C, Schwarzer G, Elm E. Full publication of results initially presented in abstracts. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2018, Issue 11. Art. No: MR000005. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.MR000005.pub4] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Schwingshackl 2013
    1. Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G. Long-term effects of low glycemic index/load vs high glycemic index/load diets on parameters of obesity and obesity-associated risks: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition, Metabolism & Cardiovascular Diseases 2013;23(8):699-706. - PubMed
Schwingshackl 2015
    1. Schwingshackl L, Hobl LP, Hoffmann G. Effects of low glycaemic index/low glycaemic load vs high glycaemic index/ high glycaemic load diets on overweight/obesity and associated risk factors in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition Journal 2015;14:87. - PMC - PubMed
Schünemann 2019
    1. Schünemann HJ, Higgins JP, Vist GE, Glasziou P, Akl EA, Skoetz N, et al. Chapter 14: Completing ‘Summary of findings’ tables and grading the confidence in or quality of the evidence. In: Higgins JP, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, Welch VA (editors), Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.0 (updated July 2019). Cochrane, 2019. Available from www.training.cochrane.org/handbook.
Semlitsch 2019
    1. Semlitsch T, Stigler FL, Jeitler K, Horvath K, Siebenhofer A. Management of overweight and obesity in primary care. A systematic overview of international evidence-based guidelines. Obesity Reviews 2019;20(9):1218-30. - PMC - PubMed
Sikaris 2004
    1. Sikaris KA. The clinical biochemistry of obesity. Clinical Biochemist Reviews 2004;25:165-181. - PMC - PubMed
Silverii 2022
    1. Silverii GA, Cosentino C, Santagiuliana F, Rotella F, Benvenuti F, Mannucci E, et al. Effectiveness of low carbohydrate diets for long‐term weight loss in obese individuals: a meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism 2022;24(8):1458-68. - PMC - PubMed
Smethers 2018
    1. Smethers AD, Rolls BJ. Dietary management of obesity: cornerstones of healthy eating patterns. Medical Clinics of North America 2018;102(1):107-24. - PMC - PubMed
Thomas 2009
    1. Thomas D, Elliott EJ. Low glycaemic index, or low glycaemic load, diets for diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009, Issue 3. Art. No: CD006296. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006296.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Vist 2008
    1. Vist GE, Bryant D, Somerville L, Birminghem T, Oxman AD. Outcomes of patients who participate in randomized controlled trials compared to similar patients receiving similar interventions who do not participate. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008;2008(3):[97 p.]. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.MR000009.pub4] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Vrolix 2010
    1. Vrolix R, Mensink RP. Effects of glycemic load on metabolic risk markers in subjects at increased risk of developing metabolic syndrome. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2010;92(2):366-74. - PubMed
Weickert 2018
    1. Weickert MO, Pfeiffer AF. Impact of dietary fiber consumption on insulin resistance and the prevention of type 2 diabetes. Journal of Nutrition 2018;148(1):7-12. - PubMed
WHO 1997
    1. World Health Organization (WHO). Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic. Report of a WHO Consultation. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1997. - PubMed
WHO 2018
    1. World Health Organization. Noncommunicable Diseases Country Profiles 2018. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2018.
WHO 2020
    1. World Health Organization. Overweight and obesity. www.who.int/gho/ncd/risk_factors/overweight_text/en/ (accessed 7 April 2020).
Wood 2008
    1. Wood L, Egger M, Gluud LL, Schulz KF, Jüni P, Altman DG, et al. Empirical evidence of bias in treatment effect estimates in controlled trials with different interventions and outcomes: meta-epidemiological study. BMJ 2008;336(7644):601-5. - PMC - PubMed
Zafar 2018
    1. Zafar MI, Mills KE, Zheng J, Peng MM, Ye X, Chen LL. Low glycaemic index diets as an intervention for obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity Reviews 2018;20(2):290-315. - PubMed

References to other published versions of this review

Thomas 2007
    1. Thomas DE, Elliott EJ, Baur L. Low glycaemic index or low glycaemic load diets for overweight and obesity. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 3. Art. No: CD005105. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005105.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed

Publication types

LinkOut - more resources