Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Nanocomposites for Nanotheranostics: Special Focus on Preventing Emerging Variants of SARS-COV-2

Abstract

The worldwide emerging cases of various respiratory viral diseases and the current escalation of novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) make people considerably attentive to controlling these viruses through innovative methods. Most re-emerging respiratory diseases envelop RNA viruses that employ attachment between the virus and host cell to get an entry form using the host cell machinery. Emerging variants of COVD-19 also bring about a constant threat to public health as it has wide infectivity and can quickly spread to infect humans. This review focuses on insights into the current investigations to prevent the progression of incipient variants of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-COV-2) along with similar enveloped RNA viruses that cause respiratory illness in humans and animals. Nanotheranostics is a trailblazing arena of nanomedicine that simultaneously helps prevent or treat diseases and diagnoses. Nanoparticle coating and nanofibers were extensively explored, preventing viral contaminations. Several studies have proven the virucidal activities of metal nanoparticles like copper, silver, and titanium against respiratory viral pathogens. Worldwide many researchers have shown surfaces coated with ionic nanoparticles like zinc or titanium act as potent antiviral agents against RNA viruses. Carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, silica nanoparticles (NPs), polymeric and metallic nanoparticles have also been explored in the field of nanotheranostics in viral detection. In this review, we have comprehensively discussed different types of metallic, ionic, organic nanoparticles and their hybrids showing substantial antiviral properties to stop the progression of the novel coronavirus disease focused on three key classes: prevention, diagnostics, and treatment.

Keywords: COVID-19 Variants; Metallic nanoparticles; Nanotheranostic; Organic–inorganic nanotheranostics hybrids; SARS-COV-2; Surface coating antivirals.

Fig. 1

Shows a schematic representation of the virologic feature of SARS-COV-2

Fig. 2

Mechanisms of virucidal activity of some metallic & ionic particles schematic representation. a Antiviral activity of copper in both metallic & ionic form. Contact killing, genomic degradation by respiratory burst & destruction of viral proteins. b Destruction of viral lipid membrane & blocking of the sialic acid receptor by silver nanoparticles. c Zinc ions block membrane attachment as well as inhibit RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), Reverse Transcriptase (RT), and DNA-dependent DNA polymerase (DdDp). d Titanium oxides show antiviral activity by both membrane dissociation and damaging genetic materials by ROS production after photocatalysis

Fig. 3

Various strategies of nanotechnology-based viral diagnostics; a Schematic of Poly (amino-ester) linked amino-magnetic nanoparticles (NH₂-MNP) synthesis through Michael addition methodology, used in viral RNA isolation. Reproduced from an open access journal [53]. b Diagram of detection kit of porcine epidemic diarrhea built on immunochromatographic assay using antibodies developed through AuNPs [50]. c Viral detection strategy using single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT)-based optical sensing approach [57]. Copyright © 2021, American Chemical Society

Fig. 4

Nanotherapeutic approaches against different strains of coronaviruses found in animals: a sVLPs-based immunization developed by gold nanoparticles incubated with IBV-specific antigen; b Virucidal activity of silver nanoparticles against infection introduced by TGEV‐induced host cell through disrupting p38‐MAPK signaling activation. Reproduced from an open access journal of Wiley (13) c Therapeutic activity of CQDs functionalized with boronic functions, on attaching to HCoV-229E virus: (i) restrict the interaction with S receptor, and (ii) inhibit the replication of viral RNA. Reproduced from an open-access journal of Wiley (14)